Use of marker panels for stratifying drug treatment options

ABSTRACT

Personalized medicine involves the use of a patient&#39;s molecular markers to guide treatment regimens for the patient. The scientific literature provides multiple examples of correlations between drug treatment efficacy and the presence or absence of molecular markers in a patient sample. Methods are provided herein that permit efficient dissemination of scientific findings regarding treatment efficacy and molecular markers found in patient tumors to health care providers.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/060,425, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,583,380, which was the National Stage of International Application Serial No. PCT/US2009/056101, filed Sep. 4, 2009, which claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/094,855, filed Sep. 5, 2008, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/155,477, filed Feb. 25, 2009, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/173,179, filed Apr. 27, 2009, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 61/231,287, filed Aug. 4, 2009, which applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Approximately 50% of Americans will get cancer and approximately 50% of those will die from cancer. Ten cancers made up approximately 70% of the 1.4 million estimated new U.S. cases in 2008. The NIH estimated that the total costs of cancer in 2007 were $219.2 billion, with direct medical costs at $89.0 billion (total of all health expenditures), indirect morbidity costs at $18.2 billion (cost of lost productivity due to illness), and indirect mortality costs at $112.0 billion (cost of lost productivity due to premature death).

There are approximately 150 oncology drugs, and over 2000 in development. Many drugs have known or measurable targets. However, cancer patients are not routinely screened for the status of these targets (or markers), and markers are not used to determine which drug treatment options the patients receive. Rather, cancers are often treated by organ. Furthermore, an integrated source of knowledge regarding molecular markers and drug targets for physicians or patients is lacking.

Personalized medicine involves the use of molecular markers that characterize a patient's disease to direct the medical care the patient receives. The scientific literature provides examples where the efficacy of a cancer drug can be correlated with the status of a molecular marker. There is a need to improve the ability of health care providers to access and interpret information in the scientific literature regarding connections between molecular markers and drug efficacy. This information will allow health care providers to use molecular markers to select appropriate standard chemotherapy.

Another issue surrounding cancer treatment is the reimbursement of fees associated with treatments. Medicare can reimburse for off-label use of cancer drugs included in certain medical compendia. Additionally, peer-reviewed medical journals can provide guidance to Medicare contractors with respect to medically appropriate off-label uses of cancer drugs supported by results of clinical trials. There is a need to ensure the latest peer-reviewed information regarding off-label use of cancer drugs and information about experimental drugs supported by results of clinical trials is readily accessible to physicians and patients when a cancer drug treatment decision is made or when reimbursement from an insurance company is being sought.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In general, in one aspect, a method for generating a personalized cancer drug treatment option report is provided including obtaining a sample from a subject, determining the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample, stratifying one or more cancer drug treatment options in the report based on the status of the one or more molecular markers, and annotating the report based on the status of the one or more molecular markers.

The subject can be a cancer patient. The cancer patient can be a colon cancer patient. The sample can be a tumor biopsy. The sample can be preserved by formalin-fixing and paraffin-embedding. The determining can include nucleic acid amplification, DNA sequencing, FISH, qPCR, and/or IHC. The DNA sequencing can include de novo DNA sequencing. The de novo DNA sequencing can include bridge amplification of DNA. The sample can include genomic DNA from an FFPE sample and the determining can include bridge amplification and DNA sequencing.

The method can further include purifying cancer cells from the sample. The purifying can include flow sorting or laser capture microdissection. The sample can be a tumor biopsy obtained by fine needle aspiration, the sample can be frozen, and the purifying can include flow sorting.

The stratifying can include stratifying the drug treatment options for a condition in the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ or the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines. The condition can be colon cancer. The stratifying can be based on information in scientific literature. The stratifying can take into account the status of one or more molecular markers in drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion genes in a sample from the subject. The determining can include analyzing the sequence of UGT1A1 for one or more SNPs. The stratifying can take into account whether the subject is hypermetabolic. The stratifying can take into account the CYP450 status of the subject. The stratifying and/or the annotating can be based on clinical information for the subject. The stratifying can include ranking drug treatment options with a higher likelihood of efficacy higher than drug treatment options with a lower likelihood of efficacy or for which no information exists with regard to treating subjects with the determined status of the one or more molecular markers. The stratifying can include indicating on the report one or more drug treatment options for which scientific information suggests the one or more drug treatment options will be efficacious in a subject, based on the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample from the subject. The stratifying can include indicating on a report one or more drug treatment options for which some scientific information suggests the one or more drug treatment options will be efficacious in the subject, and some scientific information suggests the one or more drug treatment options will not be efficacious in the subject, based on the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample from the subject. The stratifying can include indicating on a report one or more drug treatment options for which scientific information indicates the one or more drug treatment options will not be efficacious for the subject, based on the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample from the subject. The stratifying can include color coding the listed drug treatment options on the report based on the rank of the predicted efficacy of the drug treatment options.

The annotating can include annotating a report for a condition in the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ or the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines. The annotating can include listing one or more FDA-approved drugs for off-label use, one or more drugs listed in a Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) anti-cancer treatment compendia, and/or one or more experimental drugs found in scientific literature, in the report. The annotating can include connecting a listed drug treatment option to a reference containing scientific information regarding the drug treatment option. The scientific information can be from a peer-reviewed article from a medical journal. The annotating can include using information provided by Ingenuity® Systems. The annotating can include providing a link to information on a clinical trial for a drug treatment option in the report. The annotating can include presenting information in a pop-up box or fly-over box near provided drug treatment options in an electronic based report. The annotating can include adding information to a report selected from the group consisting of one or more drug treatment options, scientific information concerning one or more drug treatment options, one or more links to scientific information regarding one or more drug treatment options, one or more links to citations for scientific information regarding one or more drug treatment options, and clinical trial information regarding one or more drug treatment options.

The sample can include colon cancer cells, the one or more molecular markers can include c-kit, and the one or more drug treatment options can include imatinib mesylate.

The sample can include colon cancer cells, the one or more molecular markers can include Kras, and the one or more drug treatment options can include cetuximab, panitumumab, or bevacizumab. If exon 2 of Kras does not have a mutation, the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending cetuximab or panitumumab monotherapy for the subject. If exon 2 of Kras has a mutation, the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending cetuximab or panitumumab monotherapy not be given to the subject.

The sample can include colon cancer cells, the one or more molecular markers can include BRAF, and the one or more drug treatment options can include cetuximab or panitumumab. The determining can include determining the presence or absence of the BRAF V600E mutation. If BRAF sequence encodes a V600E mutation, the stratifying and/or annotating can include providing a recommendation in the report to the treat the subject with sorafenib and cetuximab and/or panitumumab.

The determining can include determining the status of microsatellite sequences. If the microsatellite sequences display low-frequency microsatellite instability, and the sample is a stage II or stage III colon cancer, the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy for the subject. If the microsatellite sequences display high-frequency microsatellite instability, and the sample is a stage II or stage III colon cancer, the stratifying and/or annotating can include making a recommendation to not administer fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy for the subject.

The determining can include determining EGFR copy number. If EGFR copy number is increased relative to normal, the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending cetuximab or panitumumab monotherapy to the subject.

The determining can include determining if the sample has 18q chromosome loss. If the subject is a stage II colorectal cancer patient with chromosome 18q allelic loss the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending adjuvant therapy for the subject.

The determining can include determining thymidylate synthase levels. If thymidylate synthase levels are high, the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending adjuvant 5-FU-based chemotherapy not be given to the subject in the report. If thymidylate synthase levels are low, the stratifying and/or annotating can include recommending to treat the subject with adjuvant 5-FU-based chemotherapy.

The sample can include colon cancer cells, the one or more molecular markers can include Topol, and the one or more drug treatment options can include 5-FU, irinotecan, or capecitabine. If Topol expression is low, the stratifying and/or annotating can include making a recommendation to not treat the subject with irinotecan. If Topol expression is moderate to high, the stratifying and/or annotating can include making a recommendation to treat the subject with irinotecan.

The method can further include sending a kit to a health care provider that provides health care to the subject. The kit can include RNAlater®.

The method can further include establishing an in vitro culture using the sample. The method can further include high-throughput screening of FDA approved off-label drugs or experimental drugs using the in vitro culture.

The method can further include establishing a xenograft model using the sample. The method can further include high-throughput screening of FDA approved off-label drugs or experimental drugs using the xenograft model. The sample can be a tumor biopsy, the subject can be a cancer patient with end stage cancer, and results of the high-throughput screening can be used to determine an adjuvant therapy for administration to the cancer patient.

The method can further include monitoring tumor antigen for recurrence detection.

The determining can include de novo DNA sequencing and the stratifying can be based on analysis of a Kaplan-Meier survival curve.

The method can further include charging a fee for generating the report.

In another aspect, a method for generating a personalized cancer drug treatment option report is provided including: a) obtaining a sample from a subject; b) determining the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample; c) stratifying drug treatment options listed in a clinical practice guideline for a condition based on the status of the one or more molecular markers in the sample; and d) optionally annotating the report with information comprising information regarding one or more additional drug treatment options not listed in the clinical practice guideline for the condition, wherein the information is included based on the status of the one or more molecular markers in the sample. The clinical practice guideline can be the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology or the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines. The one or more additional drug treatment options can be described in National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Drugs and Biologics Compendium™, Thomson Micromedex DrugDex®, Elsevier Gold Standard's Clinical Pharmacology, or American Hospital Formulary Service—Drug Information Compendium. The one or more additional drug treatment options can include a drug used in a clinical trial. The one or more additional drug treatment options can include a drug described in a scientific journal article.

The annotating can further include listing information in the report referencing one or more scientific journal articles that describe the use of one or more additional drug treatment options.

The one or more additional drug treatment options can target a molecular marker that is in a pathway for which the status of another molecular marker indicates that targeting the pathway would be efficacious for treating the subject. The stratifying can be indicated by color coding drug treatment options listed on the report. The color code can include a shade of green, a shade of yellow, and a shade of red. The drug treatment options associated with a green shade can be drugs that are recommended to the subject based on the status of the one or more molecular markers. The drug treatment options associated with a yellow shade can be drugs that have some information that supports recommending the drug as a treatment option to the subject based on the status of the one or more molecular markers and at least one piece of information does not support recommending the drug as a treatment option. The drug treatment options associated with a red shade can be drugs for which the status of the one or more molecular markers does not support recommending the drug treatment option to the subject.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of a personalized medicine service.

FIG. 2A-C illustrates a physician accessing a report provided by a personalized medicine business based on the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ on a computer and finding the drug treatment options for colon cancer stratified based on the status of a molecular marker present in the cancer.

FIG. 3 illustrates a method for accessing a report provided by a personalized medicine business based on the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ on a computer, selecting an annotated drug treatment, accessing scientific information regarding the drug treatment, and submitting the information to an insurance company.

FIG. 4 illustrates a flow diagram for a personalized medicine service for identifying (determining the status of) molecular markers from a subject and reporting drug treatment options to the subject.

FIG. 5 is a flow diagram for providing personalized treatment options to a patient or physician.

FIG. 6 shows molecular markers or drug targets that can be identified in a subject and drug treatment options that can be recommended to the subject with the molecular marker, references, and methods of testing the status of a molecular marker.

FIG. 7 shows an algorithm for determining which drug treatment options to recommend to a subject with one or more molecular markers of a particular status.

FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a report generated by a method of the provided invention.

FIG. 9 illustrates a process for sequencing DNA from FFPE samples.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Overview

In general, methods are disclosed herein for a service that provides personalized cancer drug treatment options based on the status of one or more molecular markers in a patient's sample, e.g., a tumor biopsy. The disclosed methods can include stratifying cancer drug treatment options and/or annotating cancer drug treatment options with scientific information on a report, e.g., a printed form. The scientific information can be made accessible to a patient or one or more health care providers and can be used for insurance reimbursement purposes to aid selection of one or more drug treatment options.

FIG. 1 provides an overview of one aspect of the provided method. A cancer patient (100) visits a health care provider, and the health care provider performs a tumor biopsy (102) and potentially begins a first line drug treatment (104). The tumor biopsy is then sent to a personalized medicine business for analysis and testing. In one pathway (106), the tumor is used to establish an in vitro culture and/or xenograft model for future drug testing. In another pathway, the tumor cells can be isolated from non-tumor cells in the biopsy (108) and used to identify (determine the status of) molecular markers (110). For example, the status of one or more molecular markers can be determined by comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), high density expression, de novo sequencing, or genotyping. The molecular markers can then be used to stratify a list of cancer drug treatments (112). The identified molecular markers can also be used as the basis for annotating the drug treatment options by, for example, providing links to scientific information for experimental drugs and FDA-approved drugs for off-label use (114). The links to scientific literature can be used to send literature to insurance companies for reimbursement purposes. The stratified and annotated cancer drug treatment options can then be provided in the form of a report to the health care provider and/or patient (116), who can use the information to select a second line drug treatment therapy, for example, if the first line therapy fails. The stratified and annotated drug treatment options can be tested in high-throughput screens using the established in vitro cultures or xenograft models (118). Results of the screens can be given to the physician (120), who can use the information to select adjuncts for end stage administration, for example. One or more fees can be charged by the personalized medicine business in exchange for any of the services.

In one aspect, a method is provided that includes a) obtaining a sample from a subject, b) identifying (determining the status of) one or more molecular markers in the sample, c) stratifying one or more drug treatment options based on the status of one or more molecular markers, and d) annotating drug treatment options based on the status of one or more molecular markers.

In another aspect, a method is provided that provides personalized cancer drug treatment options, including a) receiving an order, b) obtaining a sample from a subject, c) purifying cancer cells from the sample, d) identifying (determining the status of) one or more molecular markers in the cancer cells, e) stratifying one or more drug treatment options in a report, f) annotating one or more drug treatment options in a report, and g) charging a fee for one or more of steps (a)-(f).

In another aspect, a method for generating a personalized cancer drug treatment option report is provided including a) obtaining a sample from a subject; b) determining the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample; c) stratifying drug treatment options listed in a clinical practice guideline for a condition based on the status of the one or more molecular markers in the sample; and d) optionally annotating the report with information comprising information regarding one or more additional drug treatment options not listed in the clinical practice guideline for the condition, wherein the information is included based on the status of the one or more molecular markers in the sample.

Another aspect of a method of the provided invention is shown in FIG. 5, in which a patient or physician interfaces with a personalized medicine business (500), a biopsy is performed (502), a molecular analysis is performed (504), and information is analyzed to provide recommendations to the patient or physician (506) based on the status of one or more molecular markers. The information can be scientific literature and/or clinical trial information. The analysis can include annotating a clinical practice guideline for a condition (e.g., NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology) with information (e.g., references to scientific journal articles; other drug treatment options). The analysis can include analysis of molecular pathways that include drug targets, e.g., drug targets not recommended in the clinical practice guideline for the condition, that may be efficacious for the patient based on the status of one or more molecular markers in the biopsy.

II. Obtaining a Sample

The subject from whom a sample is taken can be a patient, for example, a cancer patient or a patient suspected of having cancer. The subject can be a mammal, e.g., a human, and can be male or female. The sample can be a tumor biopsy. The biopsy can be performed by, for example, a health care provider, including a physician, physician assistant, nurse, veterinarian, dentist, chiropractor, paramedic, dermatologist, oncologist, gastroenterologist, or surgeon.

A. Receiving an Order

The methods of the provided invention can include a step in which a personalized medicine business receives an order. The order received by the personalized medicine business can be placed by a health care provider, including, for example, a physician, physician assistant, nurse, veterinarian, dentist, chiropractor, paramedic, dermatologist, oncologist, gastroenterologist, or surgeon. The order can be placed on behalf of a subject from whom a sample is taken, e.g., a cancer patient. The order can be placed by the subject from whom a sample has been or will be taken, and the subject can place the order with the guidance or supervision of a health care provider. The order can be submitted to the personalized medicine business using any of a variety of means. For example, an order can be placed using a computer website (a web interface), by sending an email, a facsimile, or a text message, or by placing a phone call to the personalized medicine business. If a website or web interface is used, the website or web interface can be maintained by the personalized medicine business. The person placing the order can create or be given a username and/or password. An order form can be downloaded from a website, sent through the mail, sent using email, or sent by facsimile. The order can be placed by filling out one or more forms and submitting it (them) to the personalized medicine business using a computer (e.g., web interface, email) or through a mail or other delivery service, for example, the U.S. Postal Service, a courier service, Federal-Express, DHL, or UPS.

A diagnostic biopsy of a primary tumor can be taken before or after an order is placed. The status of one or more molecular markers in a tumor of the subject can be identified (determined) before or after an order is placed. The subject from whom the sample is taken can be provided one or more therapies before or after an order is placed.

The order can include information regarding a sample or subject. The information can include a description of the sample, e.g., the date the sample was taken, type of sample, or other properties of the sample. The order can include information regarding the subject from whom the sample is taken. For example, this information can include height, weight, eye color, hair color, age, ethnicity, gender; clinical information, e.g., blood pressure, LDL cholesterol levels, HDL cholesterol levels, and triglyceride levels, heart rate; personal medical history, including cancer treatments already received; family medical history of the subject; and information on molecular markers.

The order can include billing information and/or insurance information. The order can contain a barcode that identifies the order. The order can contain comments or notes about the sample and/or the subject (e.g., patient). This information can be sent with the sample to the personalized medicine business.

A customer service representative employed by the personalized medicine business can process the order (e.g., enter information in the order into a database operated by the personalized medicine business). An employee of the personalized medicine business, for example, a research nurse, can review and process the clinical information. A fee can be charged by the personalized medicine business in exchange for receiving and/or processing the clinical information.

B. Kit for Processing Samples and/or Submitting Samples to a Personalized Medicine Business

The personalized medicine business can provide a kit to a health care provider (e.g., a surgeon, pathologist, oncologist) involved in the care of a subject from whom a sample will be taken. A kit can contain contents that can be used to process or transport a sample from the subject.

A kit can include a reagent that protects RNA in fresh specimens including, e.g., RNAlater® Tissue Collection: RNA Stabilization Solution (Applied Biosystems) or RNASafer™ RNA Stabilization Reagent (SABiosciences). Compositions for preserving RNA in cells and tissues are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,204,375, 7,056,673, and 7,138,226. A kit of the provided invention can contain instruments or tools for processing a sample.

A kit can contain instructions for processing a sample. The kit can contain instructions for performing a biopsy. For example, the kit can contain instructions for performing fine needle aspiration. The kit can include instructions and/or reagents for preparing formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue or for freezing (e.g., fresh frozen) a sample. The kit can contain dry ice (e.g., pelleted dry ice) A kit can contain one or more pre-paid shipping labels. A kit can contain educational materials (e.g., a pamphlet containing information about a specific cancer).

A kit of the provided invention can contain instructions for shipping a sample, for example, to an entity that will analyze the sample.

A kit can include one or more containers, e.g., an envelope, a box, and/or a tube that can be used to transport one or more samples to the personalized medicine business. The one or more containers can be provided with identifying information, e.g., information identifying the subject from whom a sample is taken, information identifying a health care provider that will perform/has performed a biopsy, information identifying the sample type to be sent to the personalized medicine business, and information regarding a shipping address to which the sample can be sent (e.g., address of the personalized medicine business). A kit can contain logistics information; for example, the kit can contain preprinted information that can be attached to the one or more sample containers that can be returned to the personalized medicine business. The shipping information can contain a barcode for tracking the shipment or for identifying the sample. The preprinted information can contain an adhesive that permits the information to adhere to a container.

One or more logistics and operation personnel employed by the personalized medicine business can send a kit to and/or receive a kit from a health care provider. A fee can be charged by the personalized medicine business in exchange for sending a kit. Multiple individuals can be informed when a kit has been sent by the personalized medicine business; for example, the subject from whom the sample is taken (e.g., cancer patient) or an oncologist that will review the subject's information, can be informed by the personalized medicine business that a kit has been sent to a health care provider.

A kit can be sent to a pathologist and/or pathology laboratory for preparing a diagnostic paraffin primary biopsy, and the subject (e.g., cancer patient) and an oncologist can be notified that the kit has been sent to the pathologist. The pathology laboratory can be a College of American Pathologists (CAP) accredited laboratory. The laboratory can be a Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) certified laboratory. A kit for processing a biopsy can be sent to the person who will perform the biopsy (e.g., surgeon), and the subject (e.g., patient) and an oncologist can be notified that the kit was sent. A kit can be sent to a person (e.g., a surgeon), for example, after surgery, for processing a second biopsy.

C. Performing a Biopsy and Submitting a Sample

Any biopsy technique used by those skilled in the art can be used for isolating a sample from a subject. The biopsy can be an open biopsy, in which general anesthesia is used or a closed biopsy, in which a smaller cut is made than in an open biopsy. The biopsy can be a core or incisional biopsy, in which part of the tissue is removed; an excisional biopsy, in which attempts to remove an entire lesion are made; or a needle aspiration (percutaneous) biopsy (fine needle aspiration biopsy), in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. The needle can be a thin, hollow needle, and it can be inserted into a mass to extract cells from the mass. Tissue can be obtained by lumpectomy or mastectomy. Tissue can be obtained by colectomy (e.g., a total colectomy or partial colectomy). Tissue can be obtained by a prostatectomy.

The biopsy can be performed by a health care provider, including, for example, a physician, physician assistant, nurse, veterinarian, dentist, chiropractor, paramedic, dermatologist, oncologist, gastroenterologist, or surgeon.

The biopsy can be processed. For example, the biopsy can be preserved by formalin-fixing and paraffin-embedding (FFPE) the tissue. The biopsy can be processed into smaller pieces. The biopsy can be treated to preserve RNA, e.g., with RNAlater® or RNASafer™. The biopsy can be stored on wet ice (approximately 4° C.), at room temperature (approximately 25° C.), stored at approximately −20° C., or at approximately −80° C., e.g., stored on dry ice, or frozen in liquid nitrogen or a dry ice/alcohol slurry. The tissue can be frozen within 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, or 240 minutes of surgical resection. Fixative agents that can be used on the biopsy tissue include, for example, methanol-acetone, Carnoy's fixative (60% ethanol, 30% chloroform, 10% glacial acetic acid), Bouin's fixative, ethanol, acetone, formalin, methacarn (substitute 60% methanol for the ethanol in Carnoy), UMFIX (universal molecular fixative), Omnifix, and FINEfix.

The sample can be one or more cells or tissue from, e.g., liver, lung, colon, pancreas, bladder, brain, breast, cervix, esophagus, eye, gallbladder, kidney, stomach, ovary, penis, prostate, pituitary, salivary gland, skin, testicle, uterus, and vagina. The sample can be, for example, blood or urine. The sample can contain nucleic acid, for example, genomic DNA, amplified genomic DNA, cDNA, amplified cDNA, RNA, amplified RNA, unspliced RNA, spliced RNA, messenger RNA, or microRNA. The sample can be a cell-free sample that contains nucleic acid, for example, DNA or RNA.

The sample can be a bone marrow core or clot. The clot can be decalcified. The sample can be one or more unstained slides from an FFPE block. The one or more slides can be air-dried (unbaked). The slides can be charged or uncharged. The sample can be a pleural/ascitic fluid. The pleural/ascitic fluid can be formalin fixed and parafilm-embedded in a cell block.

The sample can contain greater than 10% tumor, greater than 15% tumor, greater than 20% tumor, greater than 25% tumor, greater than 30% tumor, greater than 35% tumor, greater than 40% tumor, greater than 45% tumor, greater than 50% tumor, greater than 55% tumor, greater than 60% tumor, greater than 65% tumor, greater than 70% tumor, greater than 75% tumor, greater than 80% tumor, greater than 85% tumor, greater than 90% tumor, greater than 95% tumor, or greater than 99% tumor. The sample can contain 100% tumor. The type of sample submitted to a personalized medicine business can depend on the type of molecular analysis to be performed on the sample (e.g., DNA microarray, DNA sequencing, IHC).

The sample (e.g., biopsy) can be obtained by a personalized medicine business by receiving it from, for example, the health care provider who removed the sample from the subject. The sample can be obtained by a personalized medicine business through a mail or delivery service; for example, a physician can perform a tumor biopsy and arrange to send the tumor biopsy. Parafilm-embedded tissue can be sent to a personalized medicine business in an envelope. The paraffin embedded sample can be a diagnostic primary biopsy. A fresh-frozen sample can be sent to a personalized medicine business in a container, and the container can include dry ice. A blood sample can be sent in a container, e.g., a tube. A sample can be sent in a container with an ice-water mixture. A sample can be sent to a personalized medicine business in a container provided by the personalized medicine business.

One or more employees of a personalized medicine business can review the samples that are obtained by the personalized medicine business. The samples can be reviewed by a pathologist employed by the personalized medicine business. The personalized medicine business can request that one or more additional samples be sent to the personalized medicine business, for example, after receiving an initial sample from the subject.

D. Purifying Cancer Cells

The methods of the provided invention can include a step in which primary tumor cells are separated/purified from non-tumor cells in a sample, e.g., a biopsy sample. Any technique used by those skilled in the art can be appropriate for isolating primary tumor cells from non-tumor cells in the tumor biopsy. For example, the tumor cells can be isolated using techniques that include optical cell sorting, flow-cytometry, flow-sorting, fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), magnetic cell sorting (MACS; e.g., using antibody coated magnetic particles), size-based separation (e.g., using a sieve, an array of obstacles, a filter), sorting in a microfluidics device, antibody-based separation, sedimentation, affinity adsorption, affinity extraction, or density gradient centrifugation. Fresh-frozen or FFPE samples can be used for flow-sorting. Sorting can be based on cell size, morphology, or intracellular or extracellular markers. Methods for isolating or sorting tumor cells are described, for example, in Nagrath S. et al. (2007) Nature 450:1235-1239; U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,008,002, 7,232,653, and 7,332,288; PCT Publication No. WO2008157220A1; and U.S. Patent Application Nos. US20080138805A1 and US20090186065; and Rosenberg R. et al. (2002) Cytometry 49:150-158, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) uses light scattering and fluorescent characteristics to sort cells. A fluorescent property can be imparted on a cell using, e.g., nucleic acid probes or antibodies conjugated to a fluorescent dye. A cell suspension can form a stream of flowing liquid. The stream of cells forms drops that contain approximately one cell per drop. Before the stream forms drops, a fluorescent characteristic of each cell is measured. A charge is placed on an electrical charging ring prior to fluorescence intensity measurement and the opposite charge is carried on the drop as it breaks from the stream. The charged drops pass through two high voltage deflection plates that divert drops into different containers based upon their charge. The charge can be directly applied to the stream and the drop breaking off retains the charge of the same sign as the stream. The stream is then returned to neutral after the drop breaks off.

Direct or indirect immunofluorescence can be used in FACS. In direct immunofluorescence, an antibody is directly conjugated to a fluorescent dye. In indirect immunofluorescence, the primary antibody is not labeled, and a secondary antibody is conjugated to a fluorescent dye.

Different types of cancer cells can be sorted based on one or more different molecular markers, and these markers can be on the surface of the cancer cells. Cells, e.g., circulating tumor cells, can be isolated from a sample, e.g., blood, using technology from, e.g., CELLective Dx Corporation.

A sample can be obtained from a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, by fine needle aspiration biopsy, the sample can be stored fresh-frozen, and the cancer cells in the sample can be isolated by flow-sorting.

Cancer cells can be purified by laser capture microdissection. In laser capture microdissection, a transparent transfer film is applied on the surface of a tissue section. Cells to be removed are identified using a microscope, and a near infrared (IR) laser diode is activated. The laser beam fuses the transfer film to the underlying cells. The film can then be removed with the desired cells attached. Fresh-frozen and paraffin embedded tissue may be used for laser capture microdissection.

Cancer cells can be purified using Panomics (Affymetrix®) Cancer Cell Isolation Kit (Catalog number CI0002, CI0004, or CI0010). Cancer cells can be isolated using CytoSelect™ Clonogenic Tumor Cell Isolation Kit (Catalog number CBA-155 or CBA-155-5) from Cell Biolabs, Inc.

A fee can be charged by a personalized medicine business in exchange for purifying cancer cells from a sample.

III. Molecular Markers

A. Techniques for Determining the Status of Molecular Markers

The methods of the provided invention can include analyzing a sample for the status of one or more molecular markers. The sample can be analyzed for one or more molecular markers that can include, for example, nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, proteins, including antibodies, autoantibodies, and cell surface receptors, gene or protein expression profiles, carbohydrates, and lipids. The status of one or more molecular markers in the sample can be identified (determined) using techniques that include, for example, comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) or chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA), in which copy number changes of DNA in a tumor are detected, expression profiling, DNA microarray, high-density oligonucleotide microarray, whole-genome RNA expression array, peptide microarray, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), genome sequencing, de novo sequencing, 454 sequencing, pyrosequencing, Helicos True Single Molecule Sequencing, SOLiD™ sequencing, SOLEXA sequencing, nanosequencing, chemical-sensitive field effect transistor (chemFET) array sequencing, polony sequencing, copy number variation (CNV) analysis sequencing, small nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis, immunohistochemistry (IHC), immunoctyochemistry (ICC), mass spectrometry, tandem mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), in-situ hybridization, fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH), chromogenic in-situ hybridization (CISH), silver in situ hybridization (SISH), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), digital PCR (dPCR), reverse transcription PCR, quantitative PCR (Q-PCR), single marker qPCR, real-time PCR, nCounter Analysis (Nanostring technology), Western blotting, Southern blotting, SDS-PAGE, gel electrophoresis, and Northern blotting.

The status of one or more molecular markers corresponding to genetic polymorphisms between members of a population can be detected by numerous methods well-established in the art e.g., PCR-based sequence specific amplification, restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), isozyme markers, northern analysis, allele specific hybridization (ASH), array based hybridization, amplified variable sequences of the genome, self-sustained sequence replication, simple sequence repeat (SSR), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (“RAPD”) or amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP).

Techniques for determining the status of one or more molecular markers can use hybridization of a probe nucleic acid to nucleic acids corresponding to the molecular marker (e.g., amplified nucleic acids produced using genomic DNA as a template). Hybridization formats for allele detection can include, for example, solution phase, solid phase, mixed phase, or in situ hybridization assays. A guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found in Tijssen (1993) Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Hybridization with Nucleic Acid Probes Elsevier, N.Y.

The status of a molecular marker can include, for example, gene expression level (e.g., messenger RNA level) or protein expression level. The expression level can be, for example, higher than normal, normal, or below normal. The status of a molecular marker can include absence of a mutation (e.g., wild-type) or presence of one or more mutations (e.g., de novo mutation, nonsense mutation, missense mutation, silent mutation, frameshift mutation, insertion, substitution, point mutation, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), deletion, rearrangement, amplification, chromosomal translocation, interstitial deletion, chromosomal inversion, loss of heterozygosity, loss of function, gain of function, dominant negative, or lethal); nucleic acid modification (e.g., methylation); or presence or absence of a post-translational modification on a protein (e.g., acetylation, alkylation, amidation, biotinylation, glutamylation, glycosylation, glycation, glycylation, hydroxylation, iodination, isoprenylation, lipoylation, prenylation, myristoylation, farnesylation, geranylgeranylation, ADP-ribosylation, oxdiation, palmitoylation, pegylation, phosphatidylinositol addition, phosphopantetheinylation, phosphorylation, polysialyation, pyroglutamate formation, arginylation, sulfation, or selenoylation).

B. De Novo DNA Sequencing Techniques

The methods of the provided invention can use de novo sequencing to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample, e.g., a sample from a colon cancer patient. De novo sequencing techniques include, for example, Helicos True Single Molecule Sequencing (tSMS) (Harris T. D. et al. (2008) Science 320:106-109). In the tSMS technique, a DNA sample is cleaved into strands of approximately 100 to 200 nucleotides, and a polyA sequence is added to the 3′ end of each DNA strand. Each strand is labeled by the addition of a fluorescently labeled adenosine nucleotide. The DNA strands are then hybridized to a flow cell, which contains millions of oligo-T capture sites that are immobilized to flow cell surface. The templates can be at a density of about 100 million templates/cm². The flow cell is then loaded into an instrument, e.g., HeliScope™ sequencer, and a laser illuminates the surface of the flow cell, revealing the position of each template. A CCD camera can map the position of the templates on the flow cell surface. The template fluorescent label is then cleaved and washed away. The sequencing reaction begins by introducing a DNA polymerase and a fluorescently labeled nucleotide. The oligo-T nucleic acid serves as a primer. The polymerase incorporates the labeled nucleotides to the primer in a template directed manner. The polymerase and unincorporated nucleotides are removed. The templates that have directed incorporation of the fluorescently labeled nucleotide are detected by imaging the flow cell surface. After imaging, a cleavage step removes the fluorescent label, and the process is repeated with other fluorescently labeled nucleotides until the desired read length is achieved. Sequence information is collected with each nucleotide addition step.

Another example of a de novo DNA sequencing technique that can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample is 454 sequencing (Roche) (Margulies, M et al. 2005, Nature, 437, 376-380). 454 sequencing involves two steps. In the first step, DNA is sheared into fragments of approximately 300-800 base pairs, and the fragments are blunt ended. Oligonucleotide adaptors are then ligated to the ends of the fragments. The adaptors serve as primers for amplification and sequencing of the fragments. The fragments can be attached to DNA capture beads, e.g., streptavidin-coated beads using, e.g., Adaptor B, which contains 5′-biotin tag. The fragments attached to the beads are PCR amplified within droplets of an oil-water emulsion. The result is multiple copies of clonally amplified DNA fragments on each bead. In the second step, the beads are captured in wells (pico-liter sized). Pyrosequencing is performed on each DNA fragment in parallel. Addition of one or more nucleotides generates a light signal that is recorded by a CCD camera in a sequencing instrument. The signal strength is proportional to the number of nucleotides incorporated.

Pyrosequencing makes use of pyrophosphate (PPi) which is released upon nucleotide addition. PPi is converted to ATP by ATP sulfurylase in the presence of adenosine 5′ phosphosulfate. Luciferase uses ATP to convert luciferin to oxyluciferin, and this reaction generates light that is detected and analyzed.

Another example of a de novo DNA sequencing technique that can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample is SOLiD technology (Applied Biosystems). In SOLiD sequencing, genomic DNA is sheared into fragments, and adaptors are attached to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the fragments to generate a fragment library. Alternatively, internal adaptors can be introduced by ligating adaptors to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the fragments, circularizing the fragments, digesting the circularized fragment to generate an internal adaptor, and attaching adaptors to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the resulting fragments to generate a mate-paired library. Next, clonal bead populations are prepared in microreactors containing beads, primers, template, and PCR components. Following PCR, the templates are denatured and beads are enriched to separate the beads with extended templates. Templates on the selected beads are subjected to a 3′ modification that permits bonding to a glass slide.

The sequence can be determined by sequential hybridization and ligation of partially random oligonucleotides with a central determined base (or pair of bases) that is identified by a specific fluorophore. After a color is recorded, the ligated oligonucleotide is cleaved and removed and the process is then repeated.

Another example of a de novo sequencing technology that can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample is SOLEXA sequencing (Illumina). SOLEXA sequencing is based on the amplification of DNA on a solid surface using fold-back PCR and anchored primers. Genomic DNA is fragmented, and adapters are added to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the fragments. DNA fragments that are attached to the surface of flow cell channels are extended and bridge amplified. The fragments become double stranded, and the double stranded molecules are denatured. Multiple cycles of the solid-phase amplification followed by denaturation can create several million clusters of approximately 1,000 copies of single-stranded DNA molecules of the same template in each channel of the flow cell. Primers, DNA polymerase and four fluorophore-labeled, reversibly terminating nucleotides are used to perform sequential sequencing. After nucleotide incorporation, a laser is used to excite the fluorophores, and an image is captured and the identity of the first base is recorded. The 3′ terminators and fluorophores from each incorporated base are removed and the incorporation, detection and identification steps are repeated.

Another example of de novo sequencing technology that can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample is the single molecule, real-time (SMRT™) technology of Pacific Biosciences. In SMRT, each of the four DNA bases is attached to one of four different fluorescent dyes. These dyes are phospholinked. A single DNA polymerase is immobilized with a single molecule of template single stranded DNA at the bottom of a zero-mode waveguide (ZMW). A ZMW is a confinement structure which enables observation of incorporation of a single nucleotide by DNA polymerase against the background of fluorescent nucleotides that rapidly diffuse in an out of the ZMW (in microseconds). It takes several milliseconds to incorporate a nucleotide into a growing strand. During this time, the fluorescent label is excited and produces a fluorescent signal, and the fluorescent tag is cleaved off. Detection of the corresponding fluorescence of the dye indicates which base was incorporated. The process is repeated.

Another example of de novo sequencing that can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample is nanopore sequencing (Soni G V and Meller A. (2007) Clin Chem 53: 1996-2001). A nanopore is a small hole, of the order of 1 nanometer in diameter. Immersion of a nanopore in a conducting fluid and application of a potential across it results in a slight electrical current due to conduction of ions through the nanopore. The amount of current which flows is sensitive to the size of the nanopore. As a DNA molecule passes through a nanopore, each nucleotide on the DNA molecule obstructs the nanopore to a different degree. Thus, the change in the current passing through the nanopore as the DNA molecule passes through the nanopore represents a reading of the DNA sequence.

Another example of de novo sequencing that can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample involves using a chemical-sensitive field effect transistor (chemFET) array to sequence DNA (as described in US Patent Application Publication No. 20090026082). In one example of the technique, DNA molecules can be placed into reaction chambers, and the template molecules can be hybridized to a sequencing primer bound to a polymerase. Incorporation of one or more triphosphates into a new nucleic acid strand at the 3′ end of the sequencing primer can be detected by a change in current by a chemFET. An array can have multiple chemFET sensors. In another example, single nucleic acids can be attached to beads, and the nucleic acids can be amplified on the bead, and the individual beads can be transferred to individual reaction chambers on a chemFET array, with each chamber having a chemFET sensor, and the nucleic acids can be sequenced.

Any one of the de novo sequencing techniques described herein can be used to determine the status of one or more molecular markers in the methods of the provided invention.

DNA can be extracted from an FFPE sample and the DNA can be bridge amplified and sequenced. The sequences generated can be used to determine the status (e.g., wild-type or mutant) of one or more molecular markers (e.g., genes). An example of the process is illustrated in FIG. 9. Greater than 1 μg of DNA can be extracted (902) from an FFPE sample (900). Adaptor sequences can be ligated to the DNA in an in vitro ligation reaction (904). The extracted DNA can be bridge amplified to generate a library of single molecules that are spatially clustered (906). The bridge amplified DNA can then be sequenced by serial extension of primed templates (908). The accuracy of sequence reads can be up to 35 by (910). The sequences can be used to determine the status (e.g., wild-type or mutant) of one or more genes in the sample.

DNA from an FFPE tissue sample, including a historic FFPE tissue sample, can be sequenced, for example using 454 sequencing, to determine the status of one or more molecular markers (Thomas R K et al. (2006) Nature Medicine 12:852-855). Sequences from one or more historic samples can be compared to sequences from a sample from a subject, e.g., a cancer patient. The status of one or more molecular markers in a historic sample can be correlated with one or more treatment outcomes, and the correlation of a treatment outcome with molecular marker status in one or more historic samples can be used to predict treatment outcomes for the subject, e.g., a cancer patient. These predictions can be the basis for determining whether or not to recommend a drug treatment option to the subject.

The status of one or more molecular markers can be determined by de novo DNA sequencing of samples from cancer patients, and cancer patients can be grouped based on the status of the one or more molecular markers. For instance, cancer patients with wild-type Kras can be grouped together, and patients with mutant Kras can be grouped together. The survival of untreated patients in each group can be followed over time, and patient survival can be plotted to generate a Kaplan-Meier curve. A Kaplan-Meier plot can be used to illustrate the fraction of patients alive after a certain amount of time. The survival of cancer patients in each group after treatment with a drug can be followed over time, and patient survival can be plotted to generate a Kaplan-Meier curve. Analysis of a previously generated Kaplan-Meier curve can be used to recommend one or more drug treatment options to a subject (e.g., a cancer patient), based on the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample from the subject (e.g., a cancer patient).

C. Business Considerations

A personalized medicine business can outsource or sub-contract the determining of the status of one or more molecular markers to a Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) certified laboratory. The personalized medicine business can outsource or sub-contract the determining of the status of one or more molecular markers, for example, whole genome analysis, to another company, for example, Illumia® or Affymetrix®. Mass spectrometry (e.g., matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)) can be performed at, e.g., Biodesix. Only a portion of the whole genome analysis data can be reported to a patient and/or health care provider, and the rest of the data can be stored by the personalized medicine business. The stored data can be sent to the subject and/or health care provider at a later date.

Other in vitro or in vivo tests can be performed on a sample. The personalized medicine business can outsource or sub-contract another company to perform the in vitro or in vivo tests.

A fee can be charged by the personalized medicine business in exchange for performing the techniques and/or identifying (determining the status of) one or more molecular markers. The molecular marker analysis can be performed by one or more employees of the personalized medicine business, for example, one or more laboratory technicians.

IV. Drug Metabolism

The methods of the provided invention can include analyzing a sample from a subject for the status of one more markers related to drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The sample to be analyzed can be, for example, a tumor biopsy, blood, cheek (buccal) swab, or other fluid or tissue taken from the subject. Any test known by those skilled in the art to investigate drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion genes can be used. For example, the Affymetrix® Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters (DMET)—Early Access Solution can be used to analyze drug metabolism biomarkers. CYP450 status can be assessed using the Roche® AmpliChip CYP450 Test, which tests for gene variations in CYP2D6 and CYP2C19. The Human1M BeadChip from Illumina®, Human1M-Duo DNA Analysis BeadChip from Illumina®, and HumanExon510S-Duo DNA Analysis BeadChip from Illumina® can be used to identify SNPs in ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) genes. The status of ADME associated genes can be investigated using DTEx™ Gene Expression Analysis from NoAb BioDiscoveries.

A sample can be analyzed for one or more SNPs in the UGT1A1 gene, which encodes UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. Identification of UGT1A1 promoter polymorphisms can be used to predict the toxicity of treatment with CPT-111 (irinotecan). Irinotecan is a topoisomerase I inhibitor that can be used for treating colon cancer. Irinotecan is activated by hydrolysis to SN-38, and SN-38 is inactivated by glucuronidation by UGT1A1. Subjects with the *28 variant ((TA)₇ allele) of UGT1A1 express reduced amounts of UGT1A1 in their liver, and they do not clear irinotecan as rapidly as others. This can correspond to increased rates of severe diarrhea and neutropenia. Patients with polymorphisms in the UGT1A1 gene (e.g., *28 variant) have been recommended by the FDA to receive reduced doses of irinotecan. If a sample from a subject, e.g., a cancer patient, has a *28 variant UGT1A1 allele, a recommendation can be made in a report to treat the subject with a reduced amount of irinotecan.

A fee can be charged by the personalized medicine business for analyzing one or more molecular markers related to absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of one or more drugs. The analysis of one or more molecular markers related to drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion can be performed by one or more laboratory technicians employed by the personalized medicine business.

Stratifying drug treatment options and annotating drug treatment options in a report regarding the use of a drug treatment option can be done based on the status of one or more molecular markers that regulate drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion in a sample from a subject.

V. Stratifying Drug Treatment Options

The methods of the provided invention can include using the status of one or more molecular markers identified in a sample to stratify (rank) drug treatment options for the subject from whom the sample was taken (target-drug approach). The stratifying of drug treatments can be based on scientific information regarding the molecular markers. For example, the scientific information can be data from one or more studies published in one or more scientific journals (e.g., New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), Lancet, etc.). The scientific information can be data provided in a commercial database (e.g., data stored in a database provided by Ingenuity® Systems). One or more pieces of scientific information can be used to stratify the treatments.

A. Classes of Drugs

Drug treatment options can be stratified into classes based on the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample. For example, a first class of drug treatment options can be those for which scientific information predicts a drug will be efficacious for a subject whose sample has one or more molecular markers of a particular status. Drugs in this first class can be a recommended drug treatment option for a subject.

A second class of drug treatment options can be those for which some scientific information predicts a drug will be efficacious for a subject with one or more molecular markers of a particular status, and some scientific information does not support use of the drug for the subject, based on one or more molecular markers of a particular status in a sample from a subject. For example, a sample may contain a marker whose status indicates the drug will be efficacious in the subject and another marker (e.g., a mutant version of a drug metabolism gene) that indicates the drug would also have a toxic affect on the subject. Up to 9 molecular markers in a sample from a patient can indicate that a drug is likely to be efficacious for treating a subject from whom the sample was taken, and one molecular marker, for instance a drug metabolism marker, can indicate that the drug would have a high level of toxicity in the subject.

This second class can also include drugs for which there is indirect scientific support for drug efficacy in a subject (e.g., the drug targets a protein that is in the same molecular pathway as a molecular marker in a sample). For example, a drug in this class could target a kinase that functions downstream of an overexpressed cell surface receptor that is known to be targeted by an efficacious drug. A drug in this second class can be a recommended drug treatment option for a subject.

A third class of drugs can be those for which scientific information indicates the drug will not be efficacious in the subject based on the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample from the subject. For example, a drug that targets a cell surface receptor may not display efficacy if a downstream kinase is mutated. It can be recommended that a subject not be treated with a drug in this third class.

The drug treatment options can be stratified using an algorithm-based approach. An example of an algorithm for selecting a marker is shown in FIG. 7. The status of one or more molecular markers in a patient sample is determined (700). The scientific literature is analyzed for information related to the status of the molecular marker and the efficacy of one or more different drugs (702, 704). If the status of a molecular marker correlates with efficacy of a drug, then a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with that drug (706). If the status of a molecular marker does not correlate with efficacy of a drug, then a recommendation can be made not to treat a subject with the drug (708). A computer and computer readable medium can be used to stratify the drug treatment options.

A list of stratified drug treatment options can be presented in the form of a report. The stratification of drug treatment options can be indicated by color coding. For example, drugs in the first class can be color coded in green, drugs in the second class can be color coded in yellow, and drugs in the third class can be color coded in red.

The recommendation of a drug treatment option for a subject can be based on the stage of the cancer of the subject, e.g., a late stage cancer. Drug treatment options can also be stratified based on other factors, e.g., the type of cancer, age of the subject, status of drug metabolism genes (genes involved in absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion), efficacy of other drugs the patient has received, clinical information regarding the subject, and family medical history.

A fee can be charged by the personalized medicine business in exchange for stratifying the drug treatment options. The drug treatment options can be stratified by one or more employees of the personalized medicine business, for example, a molecular pathologist and research nurse.

B. Examples of Molecular Marker/Drug Relationships and Drugs Used for Cancer Treatment

Drug treatment options can be stratified based on a relationship between the status of one or more molecular markers in the sample and the efficacy of a drug treatment used on other subjects with the one or more molecular markers of a particular status. The scientific literature contains multiple examples of drugs that have efficacy in treating subjects with tumors with certain molecular markers.

The status of c-kit (also known as CD117, KIT, PBT, SCFR) in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., expression or DNA sequencing, and can be used to determine whether to recommend imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a gastrointestinal tumor patient with a metastatic and/or unresectable malignant tumor (NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology; Henrich M C et al. (2003) J. Clin. Oncol. 21:4342-4349). C-kit is a receptor for cytokine stem cell factor (SCF, steel factor, or c-kit ligand). When c-kit binds to SCF it forms a dimer which activates signaling through second messengers. Signaling through c-kit plays a role in cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) is an inhibitor of receptor tyrosine kinases. If a sample from a subject with a metastatic and/or unresectable malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumor expresses c-kit or c-kit with activating mutations, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec). If a sample from a subject does not express c-kit or c-kit with activating mutations, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec). Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) is efficacious in GIST patients with activating mutations in the juxtamembrane (JM) domain of c-kit.

The presence of Bcr-Abl in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) as a drug treatment option to the subject, e.g., a chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patient. For example, a patient with CML with the Philadelphia chromosome (Philadelphia translocation) that produces the Bcr-Abl protein, a tyrosine kinase, can be recommended to be treated with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec). Approximately 95% of people with CML have the Philadelphia chromosome. Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) can be recommended as an initial therapy for a CML patient. Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) can be recommended for use while a CML patient is in the first phase of CML (the chronic phase) (Kantarjian H. et al. (2002) NEJM 356:645-652). Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) can be recommended to a CML patient if interferon alpha therapy fails (Druker B J et al. (2001) NEJM 344:1031-1037).

The status of PDGFR in a sample can be used to determine whether to recommend imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) as a drug treatment option to a subject, e.g., a cancer patient. Cancer cells overexpressing platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), a tyrosine kinase, or with activating mutations in PDGFR can be targeted with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) (Heinrich M C et al. (2003) J. Clin. Oncol. 21:4342-4349). If a sample from a subject overexpresses PDGFR, or expresses PDGFR with activating mutations, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec). If a sample from a subject does not overexpress PDGFR, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec).

A subject with renal cell carcinoma (RCC) or imatinib-resistant GIST that expresses the marker PDGFR can be treated with Sutent (Sunitib or SU11248), a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor. If a sample from a subject with RCC or imatinib-resistant GIST expresses PDGFR, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with Sutent (Sunitib).

The status of secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC; also known as ON, osteonectin) in a sample can be used to determine whether to recommend Abraxane as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a metastatic breast cancer patient. SPARC is a matrix-associated protein that can elicit alterations in cell shape, inhibit cell-cycle progression, and influence the synthesis of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Pre-clinical studies indicate that a patient with a tumor expressing SPARC, which binds albumin, can be targeted with a paclitaxel albumin-stabilized nanoparticle formulation (Abraxane) and that Abranxe may have a higher level of efficacy in these patients compared with patients whose tumors do not express SPARC. If a sample from a subject expresses SPARC, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with Abraxane. If a sample from a subject does not express SPARC, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with Abraxane. Abraxane is indicated for the treatment of breast cancer after failure of combination chemotherapy for metastatic disease or relapse within 6 months of adjuvant chemotherapy.

The status of HSP90 (also known as HSPN; LAP2; HSP86; HSPC1; HSPCA; Hsp89; HSP89A; HSP90A; HSP90N; HSPCAL1; HSPCAL4; FLJ31884; HSP90AA1) in a sample can be used to determine whether to recommend CNF2024 (BIIB021) as a drug treatment option for a subject. Hsp90 is a molecular chaperone that can facilitate the maturation and stabilization of mutated, overexpressed and constitutively or persistently active oncoproteins (Taldone T, Curr Opin Pharmacol. (2008) Aug; 8(4):370-374). A patient with GIST expressing heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) can be targeted with CNF2024 (BIIB021), an oral inhibitor of HSP90. If a sample from a subject expresses HSP90, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with CNF2024 (BIIB021). If a sample from a subject does not express HSP90, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with CNF2024 (BIIB021).

The status of MGMT (O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase) promoter methylation in a sample can be used to determine whether to recommend temozolomide (Temodar, Temodal) as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a glioblastoma patient. The MGMT gene is located on chromosome 10q26. MGMT encodes a DNA-repair protein that removes alkyl groups from the O6 position of guanine, a site of DNA alkylation. O6-methylguanine lesions induced by chemotherapy that remain unrepaired can trigger cytotoxicity and apoptosis. High levels of MGMT activity in cancer cells can reduce the therapeutic effect of an alkylating agent. Loss of MGMT expression and reduced DNA-repair activity are associated with epigenetic silencing of the MGMT gene by promoter methylation. Temozolomide (Temodar, Temodal) is an alkylating agent. Data suggest that MGMT promoter methylation is associated with a favorable outcome after temozolomide chemotherapy in patients with recently diagnosed glioblastoma (Hegi ME et al. (2005) NEJM 352:997-1003). If a sample from a subject has MGMT promoter methylation, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with temozolomide. If a sample from a subject does not have MGMT promoter methylation, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with temozolomide.

The status of HER2 (also known as ERBB2, NEU, NGL, TKR1, CD340, HER-2, HER-2/neu) in a sample can be determined by, e.g., IHC, PCR, SISH/CISH/FISH, and can be used to determine whether to recommend trastuzumab (Herceptin) as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a breast cancer patient. HER2 is an epidermal growth factor receptor. HER2 can bind to other ligand-bound EGF receptor family members to form a heterodimer. This binding can stabilize ligand binding and enhance kinase-mediated activation of downstream signaling pathways, such as those involving mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase. Amplification and/or overexpression of HER2 is reported in numerous cancers, including breast and ovarian tumors. Breast cancer patients that overexpress the HER2 receptor can be treated with trastuzumab (Herceptin), a monoclonal antibody that can bind to the domain IV of the extracellular segment of HER2. Herceptin is approved for adjuvant treatment of HER2-overexpressing metastatic breast cancer. As a single agent, Herceptin is approved for treatment of HER2-overexpressing breast cancer in patients who have received one or more chemotherapy regimens for metastatic disease. If a sample from a subject (e.g., a breast cancer patient) overexpresses HER2, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with trastuzumab (Herceptin). If a sample from a subject (e.g., a breast cancer patient) does not overexpress HER2, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with trastuzumab (Herceptin).

The status of human epidermal growth factor receptor 1 (also known as HER1, EGFR, ERBB, mENA, ERBB1, PIG61) in a sample can be used to determine whether to recommend Erlotinib (Tarceva) as a drug treatment option for a subject. EGFR is a transmembrane glycoprotein receptor for epidermal growth factor family members. Binding of the EGFR to a ligand induces receptor dimerization and tyrosine autophosphorylation and leads to cell proliferation. Mutations in HER1 are associated with lung cancer. Erlotinib (Tarceva) binds to the ATP binding site of the EGFR tyrosine kinase. Tarceva monotherapy is indicated for the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer after failure of at least one prior chemotherapy regimen. Tarceva in combination with gemcitabine is indicated for the first-line treatment of patients with locally advanced, unresectable or metastatic pancreatic cancer. Erlotinib (Tarceva) is efficacious in patients with pancreatic cancer and non-small cell lung cancer that are positive by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for EGFR. If a sample from a subject expresses EGFR, erlotinib (Tarceva) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for the subject. If a sample from a subject does not express EGFR, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with erlotinib (Tarceva).

The status of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) can be used to determine whether to recommend Bevacizumab (Avastin) as a drug treatment option. VEGF is a glycosylated mitogen that can act on endothelial cells. VEGF can mediate increased vascular permeability, inducing angiogenesis, vasculogenesis and endothelial cell growth, promote cell migration, and inhibit apoptosis. Bevacizumab (Avastin) is a recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody directed to VEGF. Bevacizumab (Avastin) can block tumor growth by inhibiting the formation of new blood vessels. Bevacizumab (Avastin) is indicated for first or second-line treatment of patients with metastatic carcinoma of the colon or rectum in combination with intravenous 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy. Bevacizumab (Avastin) is also indicated for the first-line treatment of unresectable, locally advanced, recurrent or metastatic non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer in combination with carboplatin and paclitaxel. Bevacizumab (Avastin) is also indicated for the treatment of patients who have not received chemotherapy for metastatic HER2-negative breast cancer in combination with paclitaxel. Bevacizumab (Avastin) is indicated for the treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma in combination with interferon alpha. If a sample from a subject expresses VEGF, Bevacizumab (Avastin) can be recommended as a drug treatment option. If a sample from a subject does not express VEGF, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with Bevacizumab (Avastin).

The status of ER (also known as estrogen receptor; ESR; Era; ESRA; NR3A1; DKFZp686N23123; ESR1) in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., IHC, and can be used to determine whether to recommend hormonal therapeutics to the subject, e.g., a subject with breast cancer. ER is a ligand-activated transcription factor that includes domains for hormone binding, DNA binding, and activation of transcription. ER can localize to the nucleus and can form a homodimer or a heterodimer with estrogen receptor 2. If a sample, e.g., a biopsy from a breast cancer patient, is analyzed by IHC and receives a score that establishes it as ER-positive, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with hormonal therapeutics. If the sample from a subject (e.g., a breast cancer patient) is determined to be ER-negative, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with hormonal therapeutics.

The status of PR (also known as progesterone receptor; NR3C3; PGR) in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., IHC, and can be used to determine whether to recommend hormonal therapeutics to the subject, e.g., a subject with breast cancer. PR is a member of the steroid receptor superfamily and mediates the physiological effects of progesterone. If a sample, e.g., a biopsy from a breast cancer patient, is analyzed by IHC and receives a score that establishes it as PR-positive, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with hormonal therapeutics. If the sample from a subject (e.g., a breast cancer patient) is determined to be PR-negative (by, e.g., IHC), a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with hormonal therapeutics.

The expression status of 21 genes in a sample from a subject (e.g., a breast cancer patient) can be determined using the Oncotype Dx assay (Genomic Health Inc.), which involves reverse transcription followed by RT-PCR of FFPE samples from primary breast cancer. The levels of expression are used to calculate an RS (Recurrence Score®), which can be used to assign a patient to a treatment group. The score generated from the analysis can be used to determine whether to recommend tamoxifen as a drug treatment option for a breast cancer patient. Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM). The Oncotype Dx test can be used after surgery (e.g., lumpectomy or mastectomy) but before a decision on adjuvant therapy is made.

The status of the PAM 50 expression signature in sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., RT-PCR, and can be used to determine whether to recommend endocrine therapy for the subject, e.g., a breast cancer patient (Parker J S et al. (2009) J Clin Oncol. 27:1160-1167). The 50-gene PAM50 subtype predictor can be used to assign intrinsic subtypes to tumor samples and can be used to assess the likelihood of efficacy from neoadjuvant chemotherapy.

The status of vras and Kras in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend bevacizumab (Avastin) as a drug treatment option to the subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient or a patient with metastatic colon cancer. (Grothey A and Turja J H (2008) http://cme.medscape.com/viewarticle/577606).

Capecitabine (Xeloda) can be recommended as an adjuvant to a subject with colorectal cancer Stage III (Dukes' C) colon cancer (Twelves C. et al. (2005) NEJM 352:2696-2704) or as a first-line monotherapy for metastatic colorectal cancer. Capecitabine (Xeloda) is a prodrug that can be converted to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in a tumor. 5-FU inhibits DNA synthesis, thereby slowing tumor growth.

The status of a VeriStrat® (Biodesix) serum protein signature in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), and can be used to determine whether to recommend cetuximab (Erbitux) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient. The VeriStrat® test can predict the response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (e.g., gefitinib or erlotinib) for patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), and can be used to determine whether to recommend erlobtinib (Tarceva) or gefitinib (Iressa) to a subject, e.g., a metastatic lung cancer patient, non-small-cell lung cancer patient, adenocarinoma (ADC) patient, or squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) patient. Erlotinib (Tarceva) can target the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase.

The status of EGFR expression in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend cetuximab (Erbitux) as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient with an irinotecan resistant tumor (irinotecan (Camptosar) is a topoisomerase 1 inhibitor). For example, if a sample from a subject is determined to be an EGFR-expressing, metastatic colorectal carcinoma and the subject is refractory to irinotecan-based chemotherapy, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux).

The status of TOPO1 (also known as DNA topoisomerase; TOPI; TOP1) expression in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., IHC, and can be used to determine whether to recommend fluorouracil (5-FU; F5U; Adrucil) with or without irinotecan or oxaliplatin for the subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient (Braun M. S. et al. (2008) J Clin Oncol. 26:2690-2698). TOPO1 can alter the topologic states of DNA by catalyzing the transient breaking and rejoining of a single strand of DNA which allows the strands to pass through one another. Fluorouracil (Adrucil) is a pyrimidine analog that can act as an inhibitor of thymidylate synthase, which makes thymidine for DNA replication. If a biopsy from a colon cancer patient is determined to have low TOPO1 expression by, e.g., IHC, 5-FU (Adrucil) can be recommended as a drug treatment option without irinotecan or oxaliplatin. If a biopsy from a colon cancer patient is determined to have moderate or high TOPO1 expression by, e.g., IHC, 5-FU (Adrucil) treatment with irinotecan or oxaliplatin can be recommended as a drug treatment option for the colon cancer patient.

The status of TOPO1 in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend irinotecan (Camptosar) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a metastatic colon cancer patient. Irinotecan can be recommended to a metastatic colon cancer patient after recurrence of colon cancer or progression after 5-FU therapy.

The status of Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog (PTEN) in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) for the subject, e.g., a metastatic colorectal cancer patient (Frattini M. et al. (2007) Br J Cancer 97:1139-1145). PTEN can regulate the cell cycle. PTEN dephosphorylates phosphoinositide substrates. PTEN can regulate the intracellular levels of phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate and can act as a tumor suppressor by negatively regulating the Akt/PKB signalling pathway. If a sample from a subject expresses PTEN, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix). If a sample from a subject does not express PTEN, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix).

The status of PIK3CA in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) for the subject, e.g., a metastatic colorectal cancer patient (Satore-Bianchi A et al. (2009) Cancer Res 69:1851-1857). PIK3CA encodes the 110 kDa catalytic subunit or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (which is also composed of an 85 kDa regulatory subunit). The catalytic subunit can phosphorylate PtdIns, PtdIns4P and PtdIns(4,5)P2. Membrane localization of PIK3CA inhibits PTEN and promotes AKT1 phosphorylation. If a sample from a subject has wild-type PIK3CA, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix). If a sample from a subject has mutations in PIK3CA, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix).

Leucovorin (Wellcovorin, folinic acid) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, in combination with 5-FU to prolong survival and promote palliative care. Leucovorin enhances the binding of 5-FU to thymidylate synthase and as a result prolongs the life span of 5-FU. This results in an anti-cancer effect of 5-FU.

Levamisole (Ergamisol) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a patient with Dukes' Stage C colon cancer, in combination with 5-FU after surgical resection.

Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a patient with metastatic colon cancer, in combination with 5-FU and leucovorin (LV). Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin) is a platinum-based chemotherapy drug thought to inhibit DNA synthesis. Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin) used in combination with infusional 5-FU/LV is indicated for adjuvant treatment of stage III colon cancer patients who have undergone complete resection of the primary tumor and for treatment of advanced carcinoma of the colon or rectum.

Celecoxib (Celebrex) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, a patient with familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), a patient with colonic polyps, or a patient with colonic polyposis syndrome (FAPC) (Bertagnolli M M et al. (2006) NEJM 355:873-884; Arber N et al. (2006) NEJM 355:885-895). Celecoxib (Celebrex) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is a specific COX-2 inhibitor.

The status of Kras (also known as v-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog; NS3; KRAS1; KRAS2; RASK2; KI-RAS; C-K-RAS; K-RAS2A; K-RAS2B; K-RAS4A; K-RAS4B) in sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend cetuximab (Erbitux) as a drug treatment option to the subject, e.g., a colon or rectal cancer patient with stage IV disease (COL-5, COL-9, COL-10) (NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology). Kras is a member of the small GTPase superfamily. Cetuximab (Erbitux), a monoclonal antibody that targets the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), is efficacious in colorectal cancer patients with wild-type Kras (Karapetis CS et al. NEJM 359, 1757-1765). Cetuximab is indicated for treatment of locally or regionally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in combination with radiation therapy and recurrent or metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck progressing after platinum-based therapy. If a sample from a subject has wild-type Kras, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux). If a sample from a subject has mutated Kras, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux). If a sample from a subject has mutations in Kras in codon 12 or 13, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux). A recommendation can be made to treat a subject, e.g., a colon or rectal cancer patient, with cetuximab (Erbitux) if the patient is not able to tolerate cetuximab and irinotecan.

Irinotecan (Camptosar) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a colon or rectal cancer patient (NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology). Irinotecan (Camptosar) is indicated as a component of first-line therapy in combination with 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin for patients with metastatic carcinoma of the colon or rectum. Irinotecan (Camptosar) is also indicated for patients with metastatic carcinoma of the colon or rectum whose disease has recurred or progressed following initial fluorouracil-based therapy.

The status of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) can be used to determine whether to recommend panitumumab (Vectibix) as a drug treatment option to a subject, e.g., a metastatic colon or rectal cancer patient. Panitumumab (Vectibix) is a human monoclonal antibody that can target epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Panitumumab (Vectibix) is indicated as a single agent for the treatment of EGFR-expressing metastatic colorectal carcinoma (mCRC) with disease progression on or following fluoropyrimidine-, oxaliplatin-, and irinotecan-containing chemotherapy regimens. If a sample from a subject is determined to be an EGFR-expressing metastatic colorectal cancer, panitumumab (Vectibix) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for the subject. If a sample from a subject is not an EGFR-expressing metastatic colorectal cancer, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with panitumumab (Vectibix).

The status of Kras in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend panitumumab (Vectibix) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a metastatic colon or rectal cancer patient with stage IV disease (COL-5, COL-9, COL-10) (NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology). If a metastatic colorectal cancer sample from a subject has wild-type Kras, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with panitumumab (Vectibix). If a metastatic colorectal cancer sample from a subject has mutated Kras, a recommendation can be made not to treat the subject with panitumumab (Vectibix). If a metastatic colorectal cancer sample from a subject has mutations in Kras in codons 12 or 13, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with panitumumab (Vectibix). A recommendation can be made to treat a subject, e.g., a colon or rectal cancer patient, with panitumumab (Vectibix) if the subject is not able to tolerate cetuximab and irinotecan.

Mitomycin C (Mitozytrex) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a gastrointestinal cancer patient, for palliative treatment of disseminated adenocarcinoma of the stomach or pancreas. Mitomycin C is a DNA crosslinker.

Cyclophosphamide (Neosar, Cytoxan) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for treating a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient. Cyclophosphamide is a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent.

The status of Nrf2 (also known as nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2; NFE2L2) in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend doxorubicin (Adriamycin) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient (Wang et al. (2008) Carcinogenesis 29:1235-1243). Overexpression of Nrf2 resulted in enhanced resistance of cancer cells to doxorubicin (Adriamycin). NFE2, NFE2L1, and NFE2L2 comprise a family of human genes encoding basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors. Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) can intercalate DNA. If a sample from a subject overexpresses Nrf2, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with doxorubicin (Adriamycin). If a sample from a subject does not overexpress Nrf2, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with doxorubicin (Adriamycin).

The status of DPD (also known as dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase; DHP; DHPDHASE; MGC70799; MGC132008; DPYD) in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., tandem mass spectrometry, and can be used to determine whether to recommend fluorouracil (5-FU) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or a non-small-cell lung cancer patient (Nakano Jet al. (2006) British Journal of Cancer 95:607-615). DPD protein is a pyrimidine catabolic enzyme and the initial and rate-limiting factor in the pathway of uracil and thymidine catabolism. Mutations in DPD can result in dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency, an error in pyrimidine metabolism associated with thymine-uraciluria and an increased risk of toxicity in cancer patients receiving 5-fluorouracil chemotherapy. If a sample from a subject is negative for DPD expression, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with 5-FU. If a sample from a subject is positive for DPD expression, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with 5-FU. 5-FU is a pyrimidine analog that can act as a thymidylate synthase inhibitor. A dose of 5-FU can be recommended based on the level of DPD expression in a sample from a subject.

The status of OPRT (also known as uridine monophosphate synthetase; UMPS uridine monophosphate synthase; OPRtase; OMPdecase; UMP synthase; orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase; orotate phosphoribosyltransferase phosphoribosyltransferase; orotate phosphoribosyl transferase; orotidine-5′-decarboxylase) in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend 5-FU as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or a non-small-cell lung cancer patient (Nakano Jet al. (2006) British Journal of Cancer 95:607-615). For example, if a sample from a subject is positive for OPRT expression, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with 5-FU. If a sample from a subject is negative for OPRT expression, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with 5-FU.

The status of TS (also known as thymidylate synthetase; TMS; TSase; HsT422; MGC88736; TYMS) in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend 5-FU as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or a non-small-cell lung cancer patient (Nakano J et al. (2006) British Journal of Cancer 95:607-615; Cascinu Set al. (2001) Ann Oncol 2:239-244). Thymidylate synthase catalyzes the methylation of deoxyuridylate to deoxythymidylate using 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate (methylene-THF) as a cofactor. This function maintains the dTMP (thymidine-5-prime monophosphate) pool critical for DNA replication and repair. TS is considered to be the primary site of action for 5-fluorouracil, 5-fluoro-2-prime-deoxyuridine, and some folate analogs. If a sample from a subject is negative for TS expression (or has low TS expression), a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with 5-FU. If a sample from a subject is positive for TS expression (or has high TS expression), a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with 5-FU.

Bevacizumab (Avastin) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung or NSCLC patient.

Docetaxel (Taxotere) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a metastatic lung cancer patient, a non-small-cell lung cancer patient, a breast cancer patient, a prostate cancer patient, a gastric cancer patient, or a head and neck cancer patient. Docetaxel (Taxotere) an anti-mitotic that stabilizes microtubules. Docetaxel (Taxotere) is indicated for the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer after failure of prior chemotherapy, and it is indicated in combination with doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide for the adjuvant treatment of patients with operable node-positive breast cancer. Docetaxel (Taxotere) as a single agent is indicated for the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) after failure of prior platinum-based chemotherapy. Docetaxel (Taxotere) in combination with cisplatin is indicated for the treatment of patients with unresectable, locally advanced or metastatic NSCLC who have not previously received chemotherapy for this condition. Docetaxel (Taxotere) in combination with prednisone is indicated for the treatment of patients with androgen independent (hormone refractory) metastatic prostate cancer. Docetaxel (Taxotere) in combination with cisplatin and fluorouracil is indicated for the treatment of patients with advanced gastric adenocarcinoma, including adenocarcinoma of the gastroesophageal junction, who have not received prior chemotherapy for advanced disease. Docetaxel (Taxotere) in combination with cisplatin and fluorouracil is indicated for the induction treatment of patients with locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN).

The status of Kras in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend gefitinib (Iressa) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or a non-small-cell lung cancer patient (Carbone DP (2004) Nature Clinical Practice Oncology 1:66-67). For example, if a sample from a subject expresses wild-type Kras, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with gefitinib (Iressa). If a sample from a subject expresses mutated Kras, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with gefitinib (Iressa). If a sample from a subject has mutations in Kras in exon 2, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with gefitinib (Iressa) (Pao W et al. (2005) PLoS Med 2(1): e17. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020017). Gefitinib (Iressa) is an anticancer drug that can inhibit tyrosine kinase activity of EGFR.

Gemcitabine (Gemzar) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient, a ovarian cancer patient, a pancreatic cancer patient, or a NSCLC patient. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is a nucleoside analog in which the hydrogen atoms on the 2′ carbons of deoxycytidine are replaced by fluorine atoms. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) can be recommended as a first line drug treatment option for inoperable stage IIIA, IIIB, or metastatic stage IV lung cancer. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is indicated in combination with carboplatin for a patient with ovarian cancer that has returned at least 6 months after the patient had finished platinum-based therapy. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is indicated in combination with cisplatin for the first-line treatment of patients with locally advanced (Stage IIIA or Stage IIIB) or metastatic (Stage IV or cancer that has spread) non-small cell lung cancer for whom surgery is not possible. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) in combination with paclitaxel is approved by the FDA for the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic breast cancer after they have received anthracycline, unless their medical condition did not allow them to receive an anthracycline. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is indicated as a single agent first-line treatment for patients with locally advanced (Stage II or Stage III when surgery is not an option) or metastatic (Stage IV) adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is also indicated for pancreatic cancer patients previously treated with 5-FU.

Vinorelbine (Navelbine) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient, a breast cancer patient, or NSCLC patient with and unresectable advanced tumor. Vinorelbine (Navelbine) can be recommended as a drug treatment option alone or in combination with cisplatin. Vinorelbine (Navelbine) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a patient with Stage III or Stage IV lung cancer or NSCLC. Vinorelbine (Navelbine) is a 5′NOR semi-synthetic vinca alkaloid that can interfere with microtubule assembly.

The status of Kras or EGFR in a sample from a subject can be used to determine whether to recommend erlotinib (Tarceva) as a drug treatment option for the subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient, non-small-cell lung cancer patient, adenocarinoma (ADC) patient, or squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) patient (Pao W. et al. (2005) PLOS Medicine 2(1):e17). For example if a sample has wild-type Kras, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with erlotinib (Tarceva). If a sample has mutated Kras, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with erlotinib (Tarceva). If a sample has mutated EGFR, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with erlotinib (Tarceva). If a sample from a subject has mutations in exons 18-21 of EGFR, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with erlotinib (Tarceva). If a sample has wild-type EGFR, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with erlotinib (Tarceva). Erlotinib (Tarceva) can be recommended as a first line therapy.

A recommendation can be made to administer topotecan (Hycamtin) to a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or a small cell lung cancer patient, that has failed a first line of therapy or has cancer progression after an initial response to chemotherapy (O'Brien ME et al. (2006) J Clin Oncol 24:5441-5447). Topotecan (Hycamtin) is a topoisomerase 1 inhibitor.

Pemetrexed disodium (Alimta) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or non-small-cell lung cancer patient that has locally advanced or metastatic cancer. Pemetrexed disodium is a member of the folate antimetabolite class of chemotherapy drugs. Pemetrexed can inhibit three enzymes used in purine and pyrimidine synthesis: thymidylate synthase (TS), dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), and glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase (GARFT). Pemetrexed for injection (Alimta) is approved by the FDA in combination with cisplatin for the initial treatment of advanced nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Pemetrexed for injection (Alimta) as a single agent is approved for maintaining the initial treatment effect of chemotherapy in patients with advanced nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer whose disease has not worsened after initial therapy. Pemetrexed for injection (Alimta) is approved by the FDA as a single agent for the treatment of patients with advanced nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) after prior chemotherapy. Pemetrexed for injection (Alimta) is a treatment for malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), a cancer that affects the inside lining of the chest cavity. Pemetrexed for injection (Alimta) can be given with cisplatin when surgery is not an option.

Porfimer sodium (Photofrin) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or non-small-cell lung cancer patient who is undergoing photodynamic therapy. Porfimer sodium is a sensitizer that can be administered intravenously for use in photodynamic therapy. Photofrin is indicated for palliation of patients with completely obstructing esophageal cancer, or of patients with partially obstructing esophageal cancer who, in the opinion of their physician, cannot be satisfactorily treated with Nd:YAG laser therapy. Photofrin is indicated for treatment of microinvasive endobronchial non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in patients for whom surgery and radiotherapy are not indicated. Photofrin is indicated for reduction of obstruction and palliation of symptoms in patients with completely or partially obstructing endobronchial NSCLC.

Paclitaxel (Taxol) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung cancer patient or non-small-cell lung cancer patient, as a first line therapy and/or in combination with cisplatin. Paclitaxel is a mitotic inhibitor that stabilizes microtubules.

Bleomycin (Blenoxane) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a patient with pleural effusion or malignant pleural effusion (MPE), the accumulation of fluid in the pleural space that can result from cancer metastasis. Bleomycin (Blenoxane) can be recommended to be used in the management of the following conditions as either a single agent or in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents: squamous cell carcinoma (head and neck, including: mouth, tongue, tonsil, nasopharynx, oropharynx, sinus, palate, lip, buccal mucosa, gingivae, epiglottis, skin, larynx; penis, cervix, and vulva); Hodgkin's Disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma; and testicular carcinoma (embryonal cell, choriocarcinoma, and teratocarcinoma). Bleomycin (Blenoxane) is a glycopeptide that can induce DNA strand breaks.

Leucovorin (folinic acid, Wellcovorin) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a prostate cancer patient, in combination with 5-FU to prolong survival or provide palliative care.

The status of EGFR can be determined by, e.g., sequencing or detection of expression, and be used to determine whether to recommend lapatinib as a drug treatment option (Trowe T. et al. (2008) Clinical Cancer Research 14:2465-2475). Lapatinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. If a sample overexpresses EGFR, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with lapatinib. If a sample does not overexpress EGFR, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with lapatinib.

The status of ErbB2 (also known as HER2, NEU, NGL, TKR1, CD340, HER-2, HER-2/neu) can be used to determine whether to recommend leucovorin as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g, a cancer patient (NCCN).

The status of TOPO1 can be determined by, e.g., IHC, and can be used to determine whether to recommend oxaliplatin as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient (Braun M. S. et al. (2008) J Clin Oncol 26:2690-2698). Oxaliplatin is thought to inhibit DNA synthesis.

Etoposide phosphate (Etopophos) can be recommended as a drug treatment option for a subject, e.g., a lung cancer or small cell lung cancer patient. Etoposide phosphate is an inhibitor of topoisomerase II.

In the methods of the provided invention, one or more recommendations in a report for treating or not treating a subject with one or more drugs can be made based on one or more correlations between one or more molecular markers of a particular status and one or more drugs. A recommendation in a report (e.g., treat with a drug or do not treat with a drug) can be made based on the subject's type of cancer.

C. Examples of Marker/Drug Combinations for Colon Cancer

In the methods of the provided invention a drug can be recommended as a treatment option (first class or second class) or recommended not to be used as a treatment option (third class) based on the status of one or more molecular markers in a sample in a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient.

The status of c-kit (CD117) in a sample from a colon cancer patient can be determined by, e.g., flow cytometry and/or sequencing, and imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) can be recommended for the subject based on the status of c-kit. For example, if flow cytometry indicates the expression of c-kit in the sample, and the protein sequence has key mutations, imatinib mesylate (Gleevec) can be recommended for the subject as a drug treatment option. If a sample from a colon cancer patient does not express c-kit or have c-kit with key mutations, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec).

The status of the Kras in a sample from a subject can be determined by, e.g., sequencing, and cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) monotherapy can be recommended for the subject based on the status of the Kras sequence. For example, if the sample from a colon cancer patient has a wild type Kras sequence (e.g., as determined by exon 2 genotyping or sequencing), cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) monotherapy can be recommended as a drug treatment option for the colon cancer patient. If the sample from a colon cancer patient has a mutant Kras sequence (e.g., as determined by exon 2 genotyping or sequencing), a recommendation can be made not to treat the colon cancer patient with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) monotherapy.

The status of BRAF in a sample from a colon cancer patient can be determined by, e.g., sequencing, and cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) can be recommended to a subject based on the status of BRAF (Nicolantonio D et al. (2008) J. Clin. Oncol. 26:5705-5712; Cappuzzo F et al. (2008) Br J Cancer 99:83-89). For example, if a subject does not have a V600E mutation in its BRAF sequence (e.g., as determined by V600E genotyping or sequencing), cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) can be recommended as a drug treatment option. If a subject has a V600E mutation in its BRAF sequence (e.g., as determined by V600E genotyping or sequencing), then a recommendation can be made not to treat the patient with cetuximab (Erbitux) or Panitumumab (Vectibix). Treatment of subjects with the BRAF V600E mutation with the BRAF inhibitor sorafenib can restore sensitivity to cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) monotherapy. If a sample from a subject has a V600E mutation in its BRAF sequence, then a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with sorafenib and cetuximab (Erbitux) and/or panitumumab (Vectibix).

The presence or absence of microsatellite stability in a sample from a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, can be used to determine whether or not to recommend fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy to the subject. Fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy benefited patients with stage II or stage III colon cancer with microsatellite-stable tumors or tumors exhibiting low-frequency microsatellite instability but not those with tumors exhibiting high-frequency microsatellite instability (Ribic C M et al. (2003) NEJM 349:247-257). If a sample from a subject with stage II or stage III colon cancer has a microsatellite-stable tumor or a tumor exhibiting low-frequency microsatellite instability, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy. If a subject with stage II or stage III colon cancer has a tumor that exhibits high-frequency microsatellite instability, a recommendation can be made not to treat the subject with fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy. Microsatellite stability can be determined by DNA sequencing.

The status of EGFR copy number in a sample from a subject, e.g. a colon cancer patient, can be determined by, e.g., FISH or qPCR, and can be used to determine whether to recommend cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) to the subject. An increased copy number of EGFR correlates with a good response to cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) monotherapy (Cappuzzo F et al. (2007) Annals of Oncology 19:717-723). If a sample from a subject has an increased copy number of EGFR, a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix) monotherapy.

The status of the 18q chromosome in a sample from a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, can be determined by, e.g., qPCR, and can be used to determine whether to treat the subject with adjuvant therapy (Jen J. et al. (1994) NEJM 331:213-221). The status of chromosome 18q has prognostic value in patients with stage II colorectal cancer. Stage II colorectal cancer patients with chromosome 18q allelic loss have a prognosis that is similar to that in patients with stage III cancer, who are thought to benefit from adjuvant therapy. In contrast, stage II colorectal cancer patients who do not have chromosome 18q allelic loss in their tumor have a survival rate similar to that of patients with stage I disease and may not require additional therapy. If a sample from a subject (e.g., a stage II colon cancer patient) has chromosome 18q allelic loss, then a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with adjuvant therapy as if the patient were a stage III cancer patient. If a sample from a subject (e.g., a stage II colon cancer patient) does not have chromosome 18 q allelic loss, a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with adjuvant therapy.

The status of thymidylate synthase levels in a sample from a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, can be determined by, e.g., IHC, and can be used to determine whether to treat the subject with 5-FU-based chemotherapy (Elder D. (2002) J. Clin. Oncol. 20:1721-1728; Cascinu Set al. (2001) Ann Oncol 2:239-244; Ciaparrone M. et al. (2006) Oncology 70:366-377).

If a sample from a subject (e.g., a colon cancer patient) has a high TS level (as determined by, e.g., IHC), a recommendation can be made to treat or to not treat the subject with adjuvant 5-FU-based chemotherapy. If a sample from a subject (e.g., a colon cancer patient) has a low TS level, a recommendation can be made to treat or to not treat the subject with adjuvant 5-FU-based chemotherapy.

The status of Topol expression levels in a sample from a subject, e.g., a colon cancer patient, can be determined by, e.g., IHC, and can be used to determine whether to treat the subject with irinotecan. Progression-free survival (PFS) was not improved in patients with low Topol by the addition of irinotecan, but patients with moderate/high Topol benefited from the addition of irinotecan (Braun MS et al. (2008) J. Clin. Oncol. 26:2690-2698). If a sample from a subject has low Topol expression, then a recommendation can be made to not treat the subject with irinotecan. If a sample from a subject has moderate to high Topol expression, then a recommendation can be made to treat the subject with irinotecan.

The status of Kras in a sample from a colon cancer patient can be determined by, e.g., sequencing, and bevacizumab (Avastin) can be recommended as a drug treatment option based on the status of Kras.

The status of TOPO1 in a sample from a colon cancer patient can be determined by, e.g., immunohistochemistry (IHC) and/or sequencing, and can be used to determine whether to recommend 5-FU or capecitabine (Xeloda) as a drug treatment option. For example, if TOPO1 expression can be detected by IHC or if TOPO1 has a certain sequence, then capecitabine (Xeloda), or fluorouracil (5-FU) with or without irinotecan (Camptosar), can be recommended as a drug treatment option.

Combinations of markers/targets, drug/therapeutics, and cancers can be found in FIG. 6.

D. Drugs with Inhibitors of DNA Synthesis

Other cancer drug therapies that can be recommended to a subject include, for example, FOLFOX. FOLFOX is a chemotherapy regimen that can be used to treat colorectal cancer. The FOLFOX regimen includes folinic acid (leucovorin), fluorouracil (5-FU), and oxaliplatin (Eloxatin). 5-FU can act as an inhibitor of thymidylate synthase, which can block synthesis of thymidine, which can affect DNA replication. Capecitabine (Xeloda) is a prodrug that can be converted enzymatically to 5-FU.

Capecitabine (Xeloda) can be used to treat metastatic breast cancer and colorectal cancer. Irinotecan (Camptosar) is an inhibitor of topoisomerase 1 that can be used for treatment of colon cancer. FOLFIRI is a chemotherapy regimen that can be used to treat colorectal cancer. The FOLFIRI regimen includes folinic acid (leucovorin), fluorouracil (5-FU), irinotecan (Camptosar). CapeOx is a chemotherapy regimen that includes capecitabine (Xeloda) and oxaliplatin (Eloxatin).

E. Patient Metabolism

The stratifying of cancer drug treatments can take into account the role of genes that affect drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug treatment). The stratifying of drug treatments can take into account whether the subject or patient is hypermetabolic. The stratifying of drug treatments can take into account the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) status of said subject or patient. The CYP450 status of a subject or a patient can be determined, for example, from assessments made by genotyping genes encoding CYP450 (e.g., CYP2D6, CYP2C19, and CYP2C9). For example, the CYP450 status can be assessed using the Roche® AmpliChip CYP450 Test, which tests for gene variations in CYP2D6 and CYP2C19. The stratifying of one or more drug treatment options can be based on tests for defects in the enzyme thiopurine methyltransferase (TMPT), which can prevent metabolism of the anti-cancer drug 6-mercaptopurine (6MP). Results from Affymetrix® Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters (DMET)—Early Access Solution, The Human1M BeadChip from Illumina®, Human1M-Duo DNA Analysis BeadChip from Illumina®, and HumanExon510S-Duo DNA Analysis BeadChip from Illumina®, can be used to stratify the cancer drug treatment options.

F. Sources of Drug Treatment Options

The list of drug treatments to be stratified can be compiled from information sources available to those skilled in the art. The drugs can be described in scientific literature, and the drugs can be those used in unpublished clinical trials (http://clinicaltrials.gov/). The drugs can be listed in the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) anti-cancer treatment compendia for determining which drugs may be covered under Medicare Part B to treat cancer patients, including the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Drugs and Biologics Compendium™, Thomson Micromedex DrugDex®, and Elsevier Gold Standard's Clinical Pharmacology compendium, and American Hospital Formulary Service—Drug Information Compendium. The drugs can be those listed for a specific cancer on the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ website or in the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines.

G. Types of Cancers

The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ website provides clinical practice guidelines for treating a variety of cancers. These clinical practice guidelines can be downloaded. The guidelines provide information regarding care options that take into account risks and benefits associated with a procedure.

The condition for which one or more drug treatment options can be stratified and/or annotated can include a cancer listed on the NCCN website. The conditions or cancers can include, for example, acute myeloid leukemia; bladder cancer, including upper tract tumors and urothelial carcinoma of the prostate; bone cancer, including chondrosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, and osteosarcoma; breast cancer, including noninvasive, invasive, phyllodes tumor, Paget's disease, and breast cancer during pregnancy; central nervous system cancers, adult low-grade infiltrative supratentorial astrocytoma/oligodendroglioma, adult intracranial ependymoma, anaplastic astrocytoma/anaplastic oligodendroglioma/glioblastoma multiforme, limited (1-3) metastatic lesions, multiple (>3) metastatic lesions, carcinomatous lymphomatous meningitis, nonimmunosuppressed primary CNS lymphoma, and metastatic spine tumors; cervical cancer; chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML); colon cancer, rectal cancer, anal carcinoma; esophageal cancer; gastric (stomach) cancer; head and neck cancers, including ethmoid sinus tumors, maxillary sinus tumors, salivary gland tumors, cancer of the lip, cancer of the oral cavity, cancer of the oropharynx, cancer of the hypopharynx, occult primary, cancer of the glottic larynx, cancer of the supraglottic larynx, cancer of the nasopharynx, and advanced head and neck cancer; hepatobiliary cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma, gallbladder cancer, intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma; Hodgkin disease/lymphoma; kidney cancer; melanoma; multiple myeloma, systemic light chain amyloidosis, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia; myelodysplastic syndromes; neuroendocrine tumors, including multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 1, multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 2, carcinoid tumors, islet cell tumors, pheochromocytoma, poorly differentiated/small cell/atypical lung carcinoids; Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, marginal zone lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, diffuse large B-Cell lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, lymphoblastic lymphoma, AIDS-Related B-Cell lymphoma, peripheral T-Cell lymphoma, and mycosis fungoides/Sézary Syndrome; non-melanoma skin cancers, including basal and squamous cell skin cancers, dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, Merkel cell carcinoma; non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), including thymic malignancies; occult primary; ovarian cancer, including epithelial ovarian cancer, borderline epithelial ovarian cancer (Low Malignant Potential), and less common ovarian histologies; pancreatic adenocarcinoma; prostate cancer; small cell lung cancer and lung neuroendocrine tumors; soft tissue sarcoma, including soft-tissue extremity, retroperitoneal, intra-abdominal sarcoma, and desmoid; testicular cancer; thymic malignancies, including thyroid carcinoma, nodule evaluation, papillary carcinoma, follicular carcinoma, Hürthle cell neoplasm, medullary carcinoma, and anaplastic carcinoma; uterine neoplasms, including endometrial cancer and uterine sarcoma.

Medical information regarding cancers can be found at websites, for example, www.cancer.gov, www.nexcura.cancer.com, www.asco.org, and http://nccn.org/professionals/physician.

H. How Stratification is Indicated on a Report

The stratifying of drug treatment options can be indicated by markings on a form downloaded from a website, for example, the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ or in the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines, or on a printed report. For example, color coding of drug treatment options can be used to indicate stratification of drug treatment options on information downloaded or printed, for example, from the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ website. The drug treatment options that can be stratified include those found in the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines. The drug treatment options can be stratified such that drug treatment options most likely to be efficacious (first class; recommend the subject be treated with the drug), based on the status of one of more molecular markers of the sample or tumor, are highlighted or written in green or a shade of green; drugs that may have some efficacy are highlighted or written in yellow or a shade of yellow (second class; recommend the subject be treated with the drug with some caution or caveat), and drugs for which no information is available or for which the scientific literature indicates the drug will not be efficacious or will be toxic in light of the status of the subject's one or more molecular markers are highlighted or written in red or a shade of red (third class; recommend the subject not be treated with the drug). FIG. 2 illustrates an example in which A) a health care provider accesses a report on a computer based on B) the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology related to colon cancer, and C) drugs treatment options are classified (stratified) by colors. FIG. 8 illustrates a printed hard copy example of a report in which drug, target (molecular marker), and status of a target (molecular marker) are indicated. Other identifiers, such as number ranking, separate groups, asterisks, etc., can be used to indicate stratification of the drug treatment options for a condition.

The report can contain other information, including, e.g., type of assay or technique used for determining the status of a molecular marker, different type of molecular marker status (e.g., wild-type or mutant sequence; e.g., DNA, RNA, or protein sequence; high expression or low expression levels, e.g., mRNA expression or protein expression; etc.). The report can contain information on a drug dosing recommendation based on the status of one or molecular markers.

The report with the stratified treatment options can be provided by the personalized medicine business to a health care professional (e.g., oncologist) and/or the subject for whom the report is prepared. The report can be made available online or be delivered in hardcopy form by a delivery service. An alert, such as an email, text message, phone call, facsimile, etc. can be sent to a subject or health care provider indicating that the report is available. A fee can be charged by the personalized medicine business in exchange for preparing and/or sending the report.

I. Validation of Tumor Markers

The methods of the provided invention can be used to validate molecular markers. A molecular marker to be validated for a particular cancer can be selected by analyzing the literature. Stored samples from subjects whose treatment outcome is known (retrospective sample) can be used to validate a molecular marker of a condition, e.g., a cancer. Validating a tumor marker can include determining a DNA sequence variation and correlating the variation to RNA expression. Hundreds of markers can be validated in parallel. Quantitative cellular heterogeneity can be used as a measure of survival. A validation study can be a FFPE retrospective validation study. A validation study can be a prospective validation study. A validation study can be a multi-marker retrospective correlation study.

V. Annotating Cancer Drug Treatment Options

A. Annotating with Information Regarding Experimental Drugs and FDA-Approved Drugs for Off-Label Use

The methods of the provided invention can include obtaining a sample, determining the status of one or more molecular markers, stratifying one or more drug treatment options based on the status of the one or more molecular markers, and annotating drug treatment options in a report based on the status of the one or more molecular markers. The annotated information can be used by a health care provider to select other drug treatment options and/or provide information about drug treatment options to an insurance company. The method can include annotating the drug treatment options for a condition in, for example, the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ or the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) clinical practice guidelines.

The drug treatment options that are stratified in a report can be annotated in the report by listing additional drug treatment options. An additional drug treatment can be an FDA-approved drug for an off-label use. A provision in the 1993 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) requires Medicare to cover off-label uses of anticancer drugs that are included in standard medical compendia. The drugs used for annotating lists can be found in CMS approved compendia, including the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Drugs and Biologics Compendium™, Thomson Micromedex DrugDex®, Elsevier Gold Standard's Clinical Pharmacology compendium, and American Hospital Formulary Service—Drug Information Compendium®.

The drug treatment options can be annotated by listing an experimental drug that may be useful in treating a cancer with one or more molecular markers of a particular status. The experimental drug can be a drug for which in vitro data, in vivo data, animal model data, pre-clinical trial data, or clinical-trial data are available. The data can be published in peer-reviewed medical literature found in journals listed in the CMS Medicare Benefit Policy Manual, including, for example, American Journal of Medicine, Annals of Internal Medicine, Annals of Oncology, Annals of Surgical Oncology, Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Blood, Bone Marrow Transplantation, British Journal of Cancer, British Journal of Hematology, British Medical Journal, Cancer, Clinical Cancer Research, Drugs, European Journal of Cancer (formerly the European Journal of Cancer and Clinical Oncology), Gynecologic Oncology, International Journal of Radiation, Oncology, Biology, and Physics, The Journal of the American Medical Association, Journal of Clinical Oncology, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN), Journal of Urology, Lancet, Lancet Oncology, Leukemia, The New England Journal of Medicine, and Radiation Oncology.

B. Annotating With Scientific Information About the Drugs

The drug treatment options can be annotated by providing a link on an electronic based report connecting a listed drug to scientific information regarding the drug. For example, a link can be provided to information regarding a clinical trial for a drug (http://clinicaltrials.gov). If the report is provided via a computer or computer website, the link can be a footnote, a hyperlink to a website, a pop-up box, or a fly-over box with information, etc. The annotated information can become available when a computer user clicks on a condition or a treatment option on the downloaded and annotated Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ (FIG. 3). The report and the annotated information can be provided on a printed form, and the annotations can be, for example, a footnote to a reference.

The information for annotating one or more drug treatment options in a report can be provided by a commercial entity that stores scientific information, for example, Ingenuity® Systems. A health care provider can treat a subject, such as a cancer patient, with an experimental drug listed in the annotated information, and the health care provider can access the annotated drug treatment option, retrieve the scientific information (e.g., print a medical journal article) and submit it (e.g., a printed journal article) to an insurance company along with a request for reimbursement for providing the drug treatment. Physicians can use any of a variety of Diagnosis-related group (DRG) codes to enable reimbursement.

A drug treatment option in a report can also be annotated with information regarding other molecular components in a pathway that a drug affects (e.g., information on a drug that targets a kinase downstream of a cell-surface receptor that is a drug target). The drug treatment option can be annotated with information on drugs that target one or more other molecular pathway components. The identification and/or annotation of information related to pathways can be outsourced or subcontracted to another company, for example Ingenuity®.

The annotated information can be, for example, a drug name (e.g., an FDA approved drug for off-label use; a drug found in a CMS approved compendium, and/or a drug described in a scientific (medical) journal article), scientific information concerning one or more drug treatment options, one or more links to scientific information regarding one or more drugs, clinical trial information regarding one or more drugs (e.g., information from linicaltrials.gov/), one or more links to citations for scientific information regarding drugs, etc.

The annotated information can be inserted into any location in a report. Annotated information can be inserted in multiple locations on a report Annotated information can be inserted in a report near a section on stratified drug treatment options. Annotated information can be inserted into a report on a separate page from stratified drug treatment options. A report that does not contain stratified drug treatment options can be annotated with information.

VI. Screening Drugs Using Xenograft Models and In Vitro Cultures

The provided methods can also include means for investigating the effects of drugs on sample (e.g. tumor cells) isolated from a subject (e.g. cancer patient). An in vitro culture using a tumor from a cancer patient can be established using techniques known to those skilled in the art.

The provided method can also include establishing a xenograft model using said sample. The sample can be a tumor biopsy from a human subject. Cells from tumor biopsy can be transplanted to a species that includes, for example, a pig, mouse, severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mouse, rat, nude rat, etc.

The provided method can also include high-throughput screening of FDA approved off-label drugs or experimental drugs using said in vitro culture and/or xenograft model.

The provided method can also include monitoring tumor antigen for recurrence detection.

While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

EXAMPLES Prophetic Example 1 Stratifying Colon Cancer Drug Treatment Options

A colon cancer patient visits a physician, and the physician performs a tumor biopsy. The physician arranges to submit the tumor biopsy to a personalized medicine business for characterization of molecular markers. In the meantime, the physician prescribes a first line drug treatment for the cancer patient selected from those disclosed in the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ guidelines for Colon Cancer.

The tumor biopsy is obtained by the personalized medicine business, and primary tumor cells are separated from non-tumor cells by flow-sorting. The isolated primary tumor cells are tested for the status of one or more molecular marker(s) by comparative genomic hydridization (CGH), DNA sequencing, and high density expression. The status of the one or more molecular markers is used to analyze scientific publications for literature related to responses of tumors with molecular markers of a similar status to drug treatment options. The analysis is completed by one or more individuals with knowledge or expertise in colon cancer treatment employed by the personalized medicine business or outsourced or subcontracted to another company. The treatment options listed in the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ guidelines for Colon Cancer are evaluated in light of the status of the one or more molecular markers identified in the tumor cells and in light of available scientific information regarding those markers and colon or other cancer drug treatment options. An individual or teams ranks or classifies the drug treatment options based on predicted efficacy given the status of the molecular markers in the cancer patient's sample. Those drug treatment options predicted to have the highest efficacy are highlighted in green, those predicted to have lower efficacy are highlighted in yellow, and those for which a marker indicates a drug will not be efficacious or will be toxic are indicated in red.

In addition, scientific literature and clinical trial information are reviewed for other drug treatment options not listed in the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ guidelines for Colon Cancer. Based on these information sources, a report containing the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ guidelines for Colon Cancer is annotated by listing other drug treatment options that include FDA-approved drugs for an off-label use and/or experimental drugs. The downloaded version of the guidelines lists the annotated drug, and a link is provided from each listed drug treatment option to scientific information related to the use of that drug.

The stratified drugs treatment options and annotated drug treatment options are shared with the patient and/or the physician in the form of an electronic or hard copy report. The physician and/or patient make a second line treatment decision to use an experimental drug based on the molecular marker data. The health care provide can access the modified NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ guidelines for Colon Cancer on a computer, point to the annotated drug, which brings up a pop-box with a link to a journal article concerning the experimental drug. The health care provider can submit the journal article to an insurance provider to seek reimbursement for the treatment.

Prophetic Example 2 Xenograft and In Vitro Cultures

A colon cancer patient visits a physician, and the physician performs a tumor biopsy. The physician submits the biopsy to a personalized medicine business for molecular characterization. In addition, an in vitro culture and nude rat xenograft model are established. A series of experimental drugs are identified as described in Prophetic Example 1 that may be helpful for the patient. While the patient is in a first line drug therapy, a high-throughput screen is performed with the experimental drugs and the in vitro culture and xenograft models. Results of the high-throughput screen are reported to the patient and the physician, who use the information in deciding on a second-line therapy if the first line therapy fails or an adjunct in the end stage administration if appropriate.

Prophetic Example 3 Annotating Treatment Options on the NCCN Website

The scientific literature lists a treatment X for cancer A and cancer B. Treatment Y is useful in treating cancer B, but the affect of treatment Y on cancer A, however, is not known or studied. A report with the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ on a website is annotated with information describing the relationship between treatment Y and cancer B and treatment X and cancers A and B, and a note is added that treatment Y may be effective for off-label use in treating cancer A.

Prophetic Example 4 Physician use of NCCN Website with Stratified Treatment Options

A physician (FIG. 2A) accesses a NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ file on Colon Cancer (FIG. 2B) in which a patient's treatment options have been stratified based on the status of the patient's molecular markers (FIG. 2C). The highest ranked drug treatment option for a patient with marker X and is marked in green (Drug A). The next ranked drug is marked in yellow (Drug B). The drug marked in red (Drug C) does not display efficacy based on the status of the molecular marker X.

Prophetic Example 5 Physician use of NCCN Website with Annotated Treatment Options

A physician accesses a NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ file on Colon Cancer that has been annotated with an additional drug treatment option D (FIG. 3; 300). Option D is an experimental drug with published data in vitro on treating a tumor with a marker whose status is shared with the physician's patient. The physician treats the patient with drug D (302). The physician follows the link on the page to a medical journal article on the use of drug D in the in vitro study (304) and submits the article to an insurance company with a request for reimbursement (306).

FIG. 8 depicts a report with annotated treatment options. The markers (targets), status of the markers (targets), and drugs are listed. Annotated information appears in multiple places on the report.

Prophetic Example 6 Stratification and Annotation of a Combination Regimen Drug Treatment Option

An oncologist submits an order to a personalized medicine business on behalf of a colon cancer patient. The oncologist submits a tumor biopsy from the colon cancer patient to the personalized medicine business, and the personalized medicine business identifies molecular markers in the sample. FOLFOX is a chemotherapy regimen that can be used to treat colorectal cancer. The FOLFOX treatment regimen includes the drugs folinic acid (leucovorin), fluorouracil (5-FU), and oxaliplatin (Eloxatin). The molecular marker information in the sample from a colon cancer patient indicates that two of the drugs in FOLFOX will be efficacious, while the molecular marker information indicates that one of the drugs will not. The personalized medicine business highlights the drug in yellow in the list of drug treatment options, and annotates the report with scientific information. A computer downloadable report is prepared by the personalized medicine business and transmitted to the subject and the subject's oncologist with the FOLFOX drug listing highlighted in yellow. When the subject or the oncologist click on the FOLFOX drug listing, a pop-up box appears that indicates the two drugs in the FOLFOX regimen that are likely to be efficacious and the one drug that is not likely to be efficacious in treating the subject.

Prophetic Example 7 Platinum-Based Drug Treatment Options

Platinum-based drug treatment options include cisplatin, caroplatin, picoplatin, satraplatin, oxaliplatin. The efficacy or resistance of some platinum-based therapies can be correlated with certain expression profiles. A platinum-based drug is listed as a drug treatment option in a report and is annotated to indicate which expression profiles are correlated with efficacy or resistance.

Prophetic Example 8 An Aspect of a Method of the Provided Invention

A health care provider performs a diagnostic biopsy of a primary tumor in a subject. A therapy is begun, and the tumor is tested for the status of one or more molecular markers (402). An order is placed to the personalized medicine business (404). A physician places the order, or assists the subject (e.g., cancer patient) in placing the order. The order can contain clinical information and molecular information regarding the subject and the tumor of the subject at the time the order is placed (404). The order can be placed on a website (404). The clinical and/or molecular information is transmitted to the personalized medicine business via one or more paper documents, emails, or facsimiles. A customer service representative employed by the personalized medicine business processes the order and a research nurse processes the clinical and molecular information (404).

One or more kits are sent by the personalized medicine business before the second biopsy (406). The patient and an oncologist are notified that a kit is sent to a pathologist, and the patient and the oncologist are notified that a kit is sent to a surgeon (406). The kit sent to the pathologist contains instructions for preparing a diagnostic paraffin primary biopsy, an envelope for sending the sample to the personalized medicine business, and identifier information (406). The kit sent to the surgeon contains RNAlater® and instructions for freezing the sample (406). A kit is presented to the pathologist after the surgery (406). A logistics and operations team employed by the personalized medicine business sends the kits (406), and a fee is charged for sending the kits (406).

A biopsy of the sample is performed by a surgeon and the sample is frozen (408). The frozen sample is sent by FedEx in a box with dry ice (406). The frozen tissue is sent in a tube, and a blood sample from the patient is sent to the personalized medicine business for analyzing metabolism genes (406). Specific directions are provided for sending the sample (406). Parafilm embedded, frozen, and/or fine needle biopsies are sent to the personalized medicine business (406).

A pathologist reviews or blocks the samples (410). Cancer cells are purified from a sample that is sent (412). The cancer cells are purified by flow sorting (using markers and/or ploidy) or by laser capture microscopy (412). Two full-time employees (FTE) of the personalized medicine business are available to purify the cancer cells. A fee is charged in exchange for purifying the cancer cells.

Cells, e.g., circulating tumor cells, can be isolated from a sample, e.g., blood, using technology from, e.g., CELLective Dx Corporation.

The purified cancer cells are analyzed by a variety of assays by the personalized medicine business. The personalized medicine business performs targeted assays dependent on the tumor type (414). A logistics and operations employee and two laboratory technicians perform these services (414). A fee is charged for the services (414). Some of the targeted assays are outsourced (414).

The personalized medicine business performs whole genome analysis assays (416). These assays include comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), high density expression, analysis for small nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), proteins assays, and sequencing (416). Up to six laboratory technicians perform these tests, and a fee is charged in exchange for performing these tests.

Molecular tests are performed to analyze drug metabolism genes (418). These tests include the Affymetrix® Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters (DMET)—Early Access Solution, Human1M BeadChip from Illumina®, Human1M-Duo DNA Analysis BeadChip from Illumina®, HumanExon510S-Duo DNA Analysis BeadChip from Illumina®, and the Roche® AmpliChip CYP450 Test (418). Laboratory technicians employed by the personalized medicine business perform the tests. The personalized medicine business charges a fee in exchange for performing the tests.

Other in vitro and in vivo assays are outsourced by the personalized medicine business to another company (420).

The information from the targeted assays, whole genome assays, drug metabolism tests, and/or in vitro and in vivo assays are provided to Ingenuity®. Ingenuity® as well as bioinformatics employees of the personalized medicine business identify scientific information related to cancer drugs and the status of the molecular markers in the patient's sample(s) (422). A molecular pathologist and research nurse annotate the drug information with links to appropriate scientific literature (424). A report is sent to an oncologist (426).

Prophetic Example 9 Drug Treatment Recommendations

A cancer patient contacts a personalized medicine business to obtain a report regarding personalized drug treatment options based on the status of molecular markers in his tumor. The cancer patient submits a sample to the personalized medicine business. DNA is extracted from the sample and is subjected to massively parallel DNA sequencing. The sample is also subjected to qPCR. The sequence of Kras is determined and EGFR copy number is determined. The Kras sequence is determined to be wild-type, and EGFR copy number is determined to be higher than normal. A report is prepared in which cetuximab (Erbitux) and panitumumab (Vectibix) are recommended for the colon cancer patient. The drug treatment option names are highlighted in green on the report. Each drug treatment option is annotated with a number for a footnote, which list references that support the use of cetuximab (Erbitux) and panitumumab (Vectibix) for cancer patients with tumors with wild-type Kras and increased EGFR copy number. 

1-75. (canceled)
 76. A method of determining personalized cancer treatment options for a subject, the method comprising: a. obtaining a sample from a subject, wherein the sample comprises molecular markers from a tumor cell; b. determining a status of the molecular markers, wherein the molecular markers comprise c-kit, Kras, BRAF, microsatellite sequence, EGFR, chromosome 18q, thymidylate synthase, and Topol; and c. stratifying one or more cancer drug treatment options in a report based on the status of the molecular markers.
 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the c-kit has an activating mutation.
 78. The method of claim 76, wherein the Kras has a mutation in exon
 2. 79. The method of claim 78, wherein the mutation in exon 2 is in codon 12 or
 13. 80. The method of claim 76, wherein the BRAF sequence encodes a V600E mutation.
 81. The method of claim 76, wherein the microsatellite sequence displays low-frequency microsatellite instability.
 82. The method of claim 76, wherein the microsatellite sequence displays high-frequency microsatellite instability.
 83. The method of claim 76, wherein EGFR copy number is increased relative to normal.
 84. The method of claim 76, wherein EGFR has mutations in exons 18-21.
 85. The method of claim 76, wherein the subject has chromosome 18q allelic loss.
 86. The method of claim 76, wherein thymidylate synthase levels are low.
 87. The method of claim 76, wherein thymidylate synthase levels are high.
 88. The method of claim 76, wherein Topol expression is moderate to high.
 89. The method of claim 76, wherein the one or more cancer drug treatment options comprise imatinib mesylate, cetuximab, panitumumab, bevacizumab, 5-FU, capecitabine, and/or irinotecan.
 90. The method of claim 76, wherein the sample comprises a tumor biopsy or a cell-free sample.
 91. The method of claim 76, wherein the tumor cell comprises a cell from a colon cancer, a bone cancer, a breast cancer, a central nervous system cancer, a gastric cancer, a cervical cancer, an esophageal cancer, a head and neck cancer, a kidney cancer, a skin cancer, a lung cancer, or a carcinoma.
 92. The method of claim 76, wherein the determining comprises nucleic acid amplification, DNA sequencing, fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH), quantitative PCR (qPCR), and/or immunohistochemistry (IHC).
 93. The method of claim 76, wherein the determining comprises determining an absence of one or more mutations or a presence of the one or more mutations in the molecular markers.
 94. The method of claim 93, wherein the one or more mutations comprise a de novo mutation, nonsense mutation, missense mutation, silent mutation, frameshift mutation, insertion, substitution, point mutation, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), deletion, rearrangement, amplification, chromosomal translocation, interstitial deletion, chromosomal inversion, loss of heterozygosity, loss of function mutation, gain of function mutation, dominant negative mutation, or lethal mutation. 